Transcript Asian Religions in America - San Jose State University

Karmic Asian Religions
in America
Immigration
Counter-Culture
Integration
Immigration and Counter-Culture
• Immigrants bring their
religious traditions with
them, for reasons of
continuity, belief, and
support under new and
difficult circumstances.
• American-born people,
usually not AsianAmerican, dissatisfied
with their received
traditions, investigate and
adopt Asian religions. This
action goes counter to their
birth culture.
Immigration and Counter-Culture
Asian immigration is largely
confined to the Second and
Third Waves of
Immigration.
Second Wave – Chinese and
Japanese religions,
principally at the end of
19th century
• Buddhism, established in
U.S.
• Some Sikhs in British
Columbia and Central
Valley of California; some
Muslims in Midwest.
Counter-cultural access to
Asian religions begins with
translations of Asian
religious texts, in the 19th
century. Ralph Waldo
Emerson, John Humphrey
Noyes and the New
Thought and Theosophical
movements encounter
Asian religions through
these translations, and
quicken interest in these
religions.
The World’s
Parliament of
Religions, 1893
• The most important
event in the countercultural history of
Asian religions in
America is the 1893
World’s Parliament
of Religions, held as
part of a world’s fair
in Chicago, Illinois
Immigration and Counter-Culture:
1960s and 1970s
• Third Wave – SE Asian
and South Asian
immigrants, in addition to
more immigrants from
East Asia, establish
Hinduism and multiple
forms of Buddhism in the
US. Islam becomes
established in most urban
areas in the US.
Youth movements and the
counter-culture of the
1960s result in many
explorations of Asian
religions. Zen Buddhism,
in particular, establishes
an American lineage.
Counter-Culture in Popular Culture
• The Beatles, most
significantly George
Harrison, study Hinduism,
so those ideas percolate
through popular culture
(consider, for instance,
how “karma” and “yoga”
are now commonly
understood ideas and
practices.)
George Harrison studying
sitar with Ravi Shankar
World Religious Systems
• There are three widespread cosmological frameworks
- so far, we’ve encountered two of them
• Indigenous polytheisms and nature-based religions
(such as Native American religions)
• Monotheism directed through revelation (Abrahamic
religions of the book: Judaism, Christianity, Islam)
• Karmic religions rooted in the ignorance/knowledge
paradigm and meditation (Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and most forms of Confucianism and
Taoism)
Karmic Cosmologies
• Karma literally means “action,” implying that all
actions, and their consequences, are ultimately
balanced. All action, though, embeds one in a
dangerous web…
• Karma creates the wheel of samsara: the cycle of
birth-death-rebirth-REDEATH
• The wheel of samsara is a
bad loop; like Groundhog
Day, the repetition of lives
is a vicious cycle one
should want to escape
• Having used this analogy
for years, I was delighted
to learn that Buddhists
use it, too, as an example
of the wheel of samsara
• http://tipsstayingcool.blogspot.com/
2010/08/groundhog-daysamsara-and-salt_21.html
Karmic
Cosmologies
Ignorance and Knowledge
• What those in the west would call
“sin” (and “sinfulness”) is
understood in karmic cosmologies
as “ignorance.”
• When you put your hand on a hot
stove, is that a sin, or a mistake?
• If you burn your hand, you learn
not to touch such places again:
you’ve moved from ignorance to
knowledge.
• To paraphrase the great medieval
Indian philosopher, Sankara,
Action cannot destroy ignorance,
only knowledge can
Ignorance and Knowledge
• Take the same principle in
relation to murder. Is
murder a sin, or a mistake?
• Even though your
punishment for the mistake
of murder might not be as
immediate as a burned
hand, that punishment is
certain in a karmic
cosmology (in which no one
gets away with murder). It
may take many lifetimes.
But you will be punished.
Ignorance and Knowledge:
Cultivating Knowledge
through Discipline
• When you understand this
principle, you will want to
escape the wheel of samsara.
To do so will lead to
enlightenment.
• Yoga is a form of discipline
that uses knowledge and
control of the body to dispel
ignorance
• This is a contemporary
sculpture of Siva as the
original practitioner of yoga
Caste System
Caste system may have been based on racial distinctions
Caste system homologized to the hierarchy of the body
Two Versions of a Hindu Trinity
• Brahma - Creator god
• Visnu - Sustainer god
• Siva - Destroyer/Creator God
• Devi - a.k.a. Durga/Kali/Parvati The Goddess - Sakti, energy
Atman and Brahman
• The goal in Hinduism is to achieve
moksha
• Moksha = Enlightenment, and unity
• Atman = the individual entity
• Brahman = the immensity, the totality
• Tat tvam asi = “That thou art” = the
Atman is the Brahman
• Meant panentheistically
Upanisadic Monism
• Tat tvam asi = That thou art
• Atman = soul; Brahman = the All, the Immensity
• The atman is the Brahman, in the sense that a drop of
water is part of the ocean
Four Ways of Yoga
•
•
•
•
Jñana Yoga - the way of knowledge
Bhakti Yoga - the way of devotion
Karma Yoga - the way of action
Raja Yoga - the way that combines all ways through
meditation; this includes the bodily forms of yoga
known in the west, and the use of the mantra OM.
Visnu
(Vishnu)
• Visnu is the deity who
sustains the world
• Appears in an embodied
form when demons have
gained too much power
• These embodiments are
called avatar-s; there
have been nine so far,
with one more enroute
• Rama, the hero of the
Ramayana, is one of
those avatar-s
• Rama, Sita, Laksmana,
and Hanuman
V
i
s
n
u
• Visnu’s standard
attributes include
an umbrella of
cobras, conch-shell
trumpet for
battlefield
leadership, spinning
discus representing
time being sustained,
lotus flower
representing the
ever-emerging life,
and the mace to
represent discipline
and strength
Siva (Shiva)
• Combines opposites:
Erotic/Ascetic
• Destroyer of the world,
often seen as both creator
and destroyer
• Most famous iconic
representation is Dancing
Siva
• Cosmic fire circle surrounds
image
• Fire = destruction; drum
(damaru) = creation (time)
• One hand signals “do not
fear,” while the other points
to the demon of ignorance
being crushed underfoot
G
a
n
e
s
a
• Elephant-headed deity
• May demonstrate
continuity with Indus
Valley civilization
• Auspicious for new
enterprises
• Remover of obstacles
• Unites opposites
• Attributes: Saivite
forehead markings; bowl
of sweets; an ax to cut
through obstacles; hand
raised in gesture of peace;
opening lotus; and most
famously, a mouse vehicle
• A deity in the form of an
animal is called
zoomorphic (cp.
anthropomorphic)
Durga
• Other gods are so
scared, they are
hiding in the clouds!
• This nine-armed
goddess holds
weapons and
attributes
• Note how her arms
form a circle of
movement
Durga
• Form of Devi, the
Goddess
• Manifested to slay
Buffalo Demon
• She and her lion
mount remain calm
while the demon and
its buffalo are slain and achieve
enlightenment
Hinduism in America
• Enters counter-culturally first
• Makes a deep impression through Swami
Vivekananda at 1893 World’s
Parliament of Religions
• Counter-cultural forms include Vedanta
Society, Transcendental Meditation,
Hare Krishnas (ISKCON)
Swami Vivekananda
(1863-1902)
• Follower of Sri
Ramakrishna
• Came to 1893 World’s
Parliament of Religions
in Chicago
• His speech one of the
highlights
• Established Vedanta
Society in US and
Canada
Vedanta Society
• Followed teaching of Sri Ramakrishna
(1834-1886) who claimed, through
experience, to have proven that any
religion, if followed dutifully, would
bring enlightenment
• “Many paths to the same summit”
• Hindu sources include Sankara and
bhakti mystics
Principles of Vedanta Society
• 1) Truth is one; although known by many names.
Likewise, God is One, although worshipped in
many forms.
• 2) People in their essential nature are divine
• 3) The goal of human life is to realize this divinity
• 4) There are innumerable ways to realize this
divinity
Vedanta Society in America
• Had about two dozen centers in key cities,
including San Francisco, Berkeley, and North
Hollywood
• Attracted some famous converts, like Aldous
Huxley (r), author of Brave New World, and
novelist Christopher Isherwood (l)
Immigrant Hinduism in America
• Third Wave of Immigration
• Hindu Americans have had the financial and
educational advantages to put money into
building temples
• Siva-Vishnu Temple in Livermore
Buddha
(Siddharta
Gautama)
563-483 BCE
• Historical person
• Dates debated; may have
been as much as 100
years later
• Founder of Buddhism
• Synthesized karmic
world-view with an ethic
of non-attachment and
compassion
The Four Noble Truths
• From the Buddha’s own
enlightenment under the
bodhi tree
• 1) All life is dukkha
(suffering)
• 2) Tanha (craving/desire)
is the root of dukkha
• 3) To eliminate dukkha,
one must overcome
tanha
• 4) To overcome tanha,
adopt the Eight-Fold
Path (i.e. see the next
list)
• (Buddhism is enamored
of systematic lists!)
The Eight-Fold Path I
• This list actually reduces to three parts
• First is wanting to reach enlightenment:
– 1) Right Views
– 2) Right Aspiration
The Eight-Fold Path, Part II
• Second is wanting to behave in a manner
consistent with reducing suffering:
– 3) Right Speech
– 4) Right Conduct
– 5) Right Livelihood
The Eight-Fold Path, Part III
• The culmination is disciplining the mind
to overcome ignorance:
– 6) Right Effort
– 7) Right Mindfulness
– 8) Right Concentration
These are all technical aspects of meditation;
there are some advanced definitions in The
Debate of King Milinda
Impermanence
• Impermanence is the major Buddhist
contribution to world philosophy.
• Everything originates from something else, so
nothing is stable, nothing is eternal.
• There is no Atman, no Brahman, no Self, no soul.
• King Milinda mistakes Nagasena for his breath,
which he calls “The soul, the inner breath”
• Nagasena says “There is no soul in the breath” only comings and goings (page 36)
Impermanence
• The doctrine of Impermanence leads to the
Buddhist discipline of non-attachment.
• The best way to rid yourself of Tanha is to
practice non-attachment.
Compassion
• Compassion is the major contribution of
Buddhism to world ethics.
• If all of life is suffering, the one who
realizes this will have infinite compassion
for those caught in that suffering.
• Nagasena says about the monks “Our
going forth is for the purpose that this
suffering may be extinguished and that no
further suffering may arise; the complete
extinction of grasping (tanha) without
remainder (karma) is our final goal.”
Hinduism and Buddhism
• “The self embodied
in the body of every
being is
indestructible”
(Bhagavad Gita, page
1018)
• “I am known as
Nagasena but that is
only a designation in
common use, for no
permanent
individual can be
found” (The Debate
of King Milinda, page
32)
Hinduism, Buddhism
and the Self
• “The self embodied
in the body of every
being is
indestructible”
(Bhagavad Gita, page
1018)
• Hinduism has the
Atman, which has
real and continuous
existence
• “no permanent
individual can be
found” (The Debate
of King Milinda, page
32)
• Buddhism has
dependent
origination and chain
of causation: nothing
remains unchanged
Forms of Buddhism I
• Theravada - (not Hinayana) - "The Way
of the Elders" - associated with
Buddhisms of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and
South East Asia - stresses monasticism,
meditation, arhats (enlightened ones) understands the Buddha as an historic
person.
Forms of Buddhism II
• Mahayana - "The Greater Vehicle" associated with Buddhisms of China,
Japan, Korea - allows for a proliferation
of symbols, images, deities, metaphysics,
practices - stresses compassion - creates
image of Bodhisattva: A sage who delays
own nirvana in order to help other beings
in distress - understands the Buddha as
an historic person and as a philosophic
conception.
Forms of Buddhism III
• Vajrayana - "The Diamond Vehicle" associated with Buddhisms of Tibet and
Himalayas - elaborate techniques of
meditation meant to lead to
Enlightenment in this life - tantra
includes the practice of yoga around
taboos (meat, wine, sexuality, etc.) allows for many other deities, the Buddha
is understood as one form of "an ultimate
protecting and saving power"
Buddhism in
America
• Enters first through
counter-cultural methods
• Japanese Zen (a
Mahayana form) and Sri
Lankan Theravada
Buddhists present at
1893 World’s Parliament
of Religions in Chicago
Anagarika Dharmapala
Buddhist monk from Sri Lanka
Japanese Zen Buddhist
Leaders in America
• Soyen Shaku (1859-1919) attended World’s
Parliament
• D.T. Suzuki (1870-1966) most important teacher,
shown here with avant-garde composer John
Cage in 1962
American Schools of Zen
• Japanese Zen - many
avenues to reach
North America
• Now, there are many
American-born Zen
roshi-s, monkteachers
• Philip Kapleau
(1912-2004)
Immigrant Buddhism in America
• Second Wave:
– Immigrants from China and Japan
• Third Wave:
– Immigrants from Tibet, Thailand, Vietnam, China
• Many different ‘denominations’ of Buddhism
exist in Asia
– Some are primarily ethnic, others primarily
philosophic in their distinctions
• Many of these ‘denominations’ are now present
in the USA and Canada
Jodo Shinshu: a.k.a. Buddhist
Church of America
• A classic example of
tensions of immigration:
assimilation and cultural
distinctiveness
• Japanese form of
Buddhism, relies on
Amida Buddha to relieve
one from suffering
• Statue of Amida Buddha
from San Jose’s BCA
North American Buddhist Mission
• Japanese immigrants brought Jodo Shinshu to
– Hawai’i in 1889
– San Francisco in 1899
• YMBA – Young Men’s Buddhist Association
• 1930 picture of YMBA and YWBA meeting in Los
Angeles in Little Tokyo
Buddhist Church of America
• Buddhist Church
of America in San
José, on 5th Street
• For assimilation
– changed name
from ‘temple’ to
‘church’
– added pews,
hymnals
Vajrayana (Tibetan)
Buddhism in
America
• Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche
(1939-1987)
– helped people escape from
Tibet in 1959
– Dalai Lama assigns him to
oversee young leaders
– Moves to England, then US
– Starts Naropa Institute, first in
California, then Colorado
Does the Buddha have a Feline Nature?
• A religion from
northern India
• Seeks to reconcile
Hinduism and Islam
• retains monotheism
from Islam, monism
from Hinduism
• derived from Sant
and Sufi traditions
• centered in the
Punjab, and
northern Pakistan
Sikhism
Sikhism’s History
• Founded by Guru
Nanak (1469-1539)
– honored as a saint in
three traditions:
Sikhism, Islam, and
Hinduism
• Pacifist religion at first
• Later Guru-s allow for
strong discipline and
militant self-defense
• Book, Guru Granth
Sahib, made the final
guru (a.k.a. Adi
Granth)
Sikhism’s
History
Kara bracelet website
• The Tenth Guru, Gobind Singh
(1666-1708) forms the Khalsa,
“the pure ones”
• Known by 5 K’s
- kes - leaving hair uncut
- kangha - comb in the hair
- kara - steel bracelet on wrist
- kaccha - white undershorts
- kirpan – ceremonial sword
• California school students
wearing the kirpan caused a
violation of zero-tolerance
weapons policy
A Note on the Use of Distinctive
Clothing and Outward
Symbols
• When a religious group, like the Sikhs, chooses
easily identifiable forms of dress or appearance, it
serves two functions.
• It serves as a visible form of distinction, separating
group members from others
• It serves as a constant reminder to the person
wearing it, of the religious commitments they have
made
• Consider the similar function of a “WWJD” or
“One Day at a Time” bracelet
American Sikh
History
• Some Sikhs immigrate in Second Wave, from 1900-1924
• Settle in Yuba City and Stockton in California, working
on railroad in Oregon, Washington, and British
Columbia
• Sikh Temple (Gurdwara) 1915, Stockton
Immigration Woes for the Sikhs
• Congress passes Johnson-Reed
quota act, 1924, ending
immigration from Asia
• 1923, Sikh immigrant Bhagat
Singh Thind (1892-1967), argues
that he is of Aryan descent.
• Supreme Court votes 9-0
against him, saying he is not
white
• Sikhs denied citizenship, and
some stripped of lands they
already owned in California
Sikh-Americans Assimilate
• Those Sikhs
who
remained,
assimilated to
American
culture
• Many
intermarried
with
MexicanI found this gravestone at Skylawn Cemetery in
Americans
San Mateo county.
I wonder about Beatrice’s story…
Sikh-Americans
Assimilate
• The first-ever Asian-American
congressperson was a Sikh from
the Imperial Valley in southeast
California, Dalip Singh Saund
(1899-1973)
• He had been a farmer prior to
his election in 1956.
• Re-elected twice, serving from
1957-1963, but retired after a
debilitating stroke in 1962.
• Note lack of distinguishing
clothing and hair style in this
picture.: proud of his Sikh
heritage, but assimilated.
American Sikh
History II
• Third Wave – new immigrants re-assert cultural
distinctiveness, decry assimilation of older immigrants
• Politics in India, and class differences in United States,
reinforce cultural distinctiveness in 1980s and 1990s
• Annual Sikh Parade in Yuba City
Gurdwara – Sikh Place of Worship
• Many communities
in California have
Gurdwara-s; this is
San José’s, located at
3636 Murillo, off of
Quimby.
• Most Gurdwara-s
practice charity to
the poor with feasts
to which they do not
charge admission.