Transcript aka iconic memory - Miami Arts Charter School

Cognitive Psychology
Created by David Silverman
Memories
Three-Box/Information-Processing Model- information passes through three stages
before it is stored. First processed by our sensory memory, then info is encoded into our
short term, finally some of that information is encoded into our long term memory
Sensory Memory (aka iconic memory)- our split second holding tank for all our incoming
sensory information (less than a second). George Sperling -experiment where he flashed
a grid of nine letters for 1/20th of a second and asked participants to recall any of the
rows. The participants could recall any of the rows perfectly.
Explicit VS Implicit Memories- Explicit memories (aka declarative memories) -the ones
we usually think of. They are the conscious memories of facts/events that we actively try
to recall. Implicit memories (aka nondeclarative)- the memories that are unintentional
& we might not realize them (riding a bike, typing, or getting dressed)
Photographic memory/Eidetic memory indicates that someone has very powerful &
enduring visual images (EX: Psychologist Alexandra Luria studied a person that
remembers a string of 15 numbers 15 years later).
Levels of Processing Model - Think about memories like a processing model. Memories
are either deeply (or elaborately) processed or shallowly (or maintenance)
processed. The more and longer you study= the more likely you are able to recall it later.
Memories: Short Term vs Long Term
Short Term Memory (Working Memory)
are actively working-(the ones we are aware of in our
consciousness). If we do nothing with these memories,
they fade in about 10-30 seconds. Is said to have a
‘Magic Number’ limit of 7 items. To increase the ability
to memorize more than 5-9 items-there are brain tools
that people use
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Mnemonic devices- let people remember more
complex concepts (BATD) (Never Eat Soggy Waffles)
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Chunking- by chunking items on the list you have a
better chance of remembering them. A grocery list
clumped by meals is easier to remember than all of
those individual items.
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Repeating/Rephrasing- the more times you repeat
something, the higher chance of it turning into a long
term memory.
Long Term Memory
permanent storage for memories. Scientists don’t think
there is a limit on time or space in our long-term
memory- so if a memory makes it there, it will most likely
be there for life (although it can fade or decay). There
are 3 formats…
#1) Episodic Memory- memories of events, stored in
chronological, sequential way. Ex: You remember the
last time you went out on a date.
#2) Semantic Memory- general knowledge of the world
(stored as facts/meanings) Ex: You remember the
difference between ‘then and than’ or ‘too and two’
#3) Procedural Memory- memories of skills and how to
perform them (even if they are complicated described in
words) Ex: throwing a curveball, riding a bike
Memory: Retrieval (getting info from memory)
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There are two types of retrieval: recognition and recall.
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Recognition the process of matching a current event with one already in your memory (Ex: Have I smelled this smell
before?)
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Recall is retrieving a memory with an external cue (Ex: What does Uncle Nico’s cologne smell like?”)
Studies show there are a variety of reasons why people wouldn’t be able to retrieve/recall some memories and not others
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Order/sequence of events can be one factor. (Hermann Ebbinghaus established that the order of the items is related
to whether or not you will remember them). Primary effect- says we are more likely to recall items at the beginning
of a list. Recency effect- says we are more likely to recall the most recent (end of list). When the two are meshed
together (the middle is most likely forgotten) is called the serial position effect (aka serial position curve).
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Context is also important- if you learn someone’s name first and then try to recall it later- it might be difficult. But if
you hear that someone is a serial killer, you might remember their name more deeply
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon- You know someone’s name and it’s on the tip of your tongue but you can’t recall
it immediately.
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Semantic Network Theory- Your brain is working through memories, qualities, etc….getting closer to recalling
the name.
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Flashbulb Memories- powerful events or extreme memories that allow us to recall vivid context
details. (Ex: Most people can recall what they were doing on September 11, 2001).
Mood or emotional context also affects memory retrieval.
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Mood-congruent memory- a greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matched the mood we were in
when the even happened. Ex- when you’re happy, you’re more likely to remember good times and the opposite.
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State-dependent memory- just like the above but with states of mind. Ex- if you remember to write down a note
Memory: Forgetting
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Forgetting- sometimes memories fade. One cause is decay (forgetting because we don’t use the memory, or
connect it to any new memories, for a long period of time). Another cause of forgetting is interference – when
other information competes with the memories you’re trying to recall. Interference can happen in two different
ways…
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Retroactive Interference- Learning new info interferes with recalling older info. EX: If you study for psych at
3:00 and sociology at 6:00, you might have trouble recalling psych the next day (fresh on the brain)
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Proactive Interference- Older information you already learned interferes with recalling new things. If you
read a list of numbers in one order and then again in another, the old number order screws with your ability to
remember the new list order.
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People with damage to their hippocampus have an inability to encode new memories (aka anterograde
amnesia). They can still learn new things.
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Studies in animals indicate that this could be stored in the cerebellum. On the neurological level, research is
focused on long-term potentiation. Neurons have the potential to strengthen connections between each other,
especially the more the neuron fires and repeats the process. This could also be linked to long term memory.
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Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events that occurred before the amnesia.
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Constructive Memory- the memories that our brain might create to fill in gaps. People have claimed to be
able to recover memories in therapy when they have been repressed for years. Often not real- the brain
creates these.
Language: Elements and Acquisition
Elements of Language- consists of phonemes put together to become morphemes (make-up words). The
words are spoken in a particular order (Syntax.) Every language has its own syntax (grammar structure). EXwhere verbs are placed
Phonemes- the smallest unit of sound used in language. English uses 44 phonemes. Various languages=various
phonemes
EX: Spanish speakers find the rolled-R phoneme natural, but others may have difficulty producing this
sound
Morphine the smallest unit of meaningful sound. It can be words,( like a or an) or part of words,( like the
prefix ‘pre’)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Language Acquisition- how language learning reflects and predicts our development. When babies are learning
language, they go through the same basic stages in order to master language.
#1) The first stage -at 4 months old. Babies babbling could represent a baby experimenting with different
phonemes, and learning what sounds they can produce. All babies are capable of producing any phoneme from
any language when they are born As language learning progresses, we lose this ability and strengthen the
phonemes in our native language. This is also why it could be easier for babies to learn a secondary language
starting at infancy.
#2) Babbling progresses into utterances where babies imitate the words their caregiver is speaking is called the
holophrastic or one word stage. This is when babies speak single words and it usually happens around their
first birthday
#3) The next stage, at 18 months, is the telegraphic speech or two-word stage. Toddlers
combine the words they say into simple commands. The meaning of what they are saying is
usually clear, but there is rarely any syntax (grammar).
Noam Chomsky: humans are born with a language acquisition device, which is the ability to
learn a language quickly as a child (aka nativist theory of language acquisition). He thought
a critical window of language development might exist where a child must learn a skill. If
this does not happen, language development will permanently suffer.
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Benjamin Whorf -thought that the language we use might control and or limit our thinking.
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This is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
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Studies show the effects of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas. Although
few studies show that the language we speak has a drastic impact on what we are able to think
about and comprehend.
Thinking, Creativity, and Problem-Solving
Thinking and Creativity
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Algorithms- is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula for thinking (or a foolproof method). Ex- you realize that a
password is a two letter combination, you can build an algorithm to go through the combos to eventually guess it.
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Extreme Beliefs: Extreme confidence when you are wrong is called overconfidence.
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Belief Bias- When your beliefs force you to overlook opposing evidence.
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Belief Preservation- When your beliefs force you to overlook opposing evidence. You continue to believe even after your evidence is proved wrong
Heuristics- is a rule of thumb. Something that is generally true but not always. EX- you have to guess at a 5 letter password. You start
with words that you know (pet names, etc). It’s a decent guess, sometimes true.
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Availability Heuristic- Judging a situation based on similar situations that come to mind. Basing judgments on personal experiences.
EX- you think your neighborhood is dangerous because you have seen a crime but a stranger doesn’t get that impression.
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Representiveness Heuristic- Judging a situation based on similar case studies. EX- The community assumes someone doesn’t commit
suicide because it is against that person’s religion and most people in that community don’t believe in suicide.
Common Mistakes in Problem Solving
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Rigidity (aka mental set)- falling into mental thought patterns. If you normally use a certain way to problem solve, you might miss a new
way to look at it.
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Functional fixedness- The inability to see or use an object in any way other than its intended purpose.
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Ex- a group of students see a car stuck in the mud. Only one student thinks to use the car jack to lift the car out of the mud to put
wooden planks under it. Most are thinking of only using a car jack to change a tire.
Confirmation Bias- When someone wants something to be true and they ignore contradiction evidence while problem solving. Ex- if a
cigarette company is paying for a ‘study’ then the ‘research’ might be looking for ways to avoid certain answers. This hinders truth.
Framing- refers to the way a problem is presented/ positioned. Ex- if you tell a class “only half of my students pass this test” vs “almost all of
my students ace this test”- you change the students expectations for the test… and possibly their ability to correctly answer questions.
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Resources
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References
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Mr. Duez- powerpoints and videos
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This powerpoint presentation was
adapted using information from
the Barron’s AP Psychology 5th
edition prep book.
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Weseley, Allyson, Robert
McEntarffer, and Robert
McEntarffer.AP® Psychology.
Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's
Educational Series, 2014. Print.
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Fineburg, A., & Myers, D. (2010).
Myers' Psychology for AP*:
Teacher's edition (Teacher's
ed.).New York: Worth /BFW.
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http://appsych.mrduez.com/p/5cognition-memory-languagethought_9.html
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http://appsych.mrduez.com/p/5cognition-memory-languagethought.html
Crash Course Psychology
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Making Memories
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Remembering and Forgetting
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Cognition
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Language