Transcript File - Lindsay Social Studies

Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. Memories of daily life as
well as things we learned in
school but never need to
use may decay. 
2. With proactive
interference we could
forget more recent
events. 
3. They are forgotten in
favor of more recent
memories. 
4. They remain in memory
but are no longer
accessible.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Stored memory can be retrieved by recognition,
recall, and relearning. 
Objectives
– Identify several memory retrieval processes. 
– Explain the processes involved in forgetting.
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Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– recognition 
– recall 
– reconstructive memory 
– confabulation 
– schemas 
– eidetic memory 
– decay 
– interference 
– elaborate rehearsal 
– mnemonic devices
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to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
Introduction
• The brain has tremendous capacity for
storing and retrieving information. 
• Stored information is useless unless it can
be retrieved from memory. 
• Once you have forgotten to send a card
for your mother’s birthday, for example, it
is not very consoling to prove that you
have the date filed away in your brain. 
• We have all experienced the acute
embarrassment of being unable to
remember a close friend’s name.
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Introduction (cont.)
• There are few things in life more
frustrating than having a word “on the tip
of your tongue” and not being able to
remember it. 
• The problem of memory is to store many
thousands of items in such a way that
you can find the one you need when you
need it. 
• The solution to retrieval is organization.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Because human memory is extraordinarily
efficient, it must be extremely well
organized. 
• Psychologists do not yet know how it is
organized, but they are studying the
processes of retrieval for clues.
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Recognition
• Human memory is organized in such a
way as to make recognition quite easy–
people can say with great accuracy
whether something is familiar to them. 
• The process of recognition provides
insight into how information is stored
in memory.
recognition
memory retrieval in which a
person identifies an object, idea,
or situation as one he or she has
or has not experienced before
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Recall
• More remarkable than the ability to
recognize information is the ability to
recall it. 
• Recall is the active reconstruction of
information. 
• Recall involves more than searching for
and finding pieces of information, however.
recall
memory retrieval in which a
person reconstructs
previously learned material
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Recall (cont.)
• Our recall seems to result from
reconstructive memory. 
• Our memories may be simplified,
enriched, or distorted, depending on our
experiences and attitudes.
reconstructive memory
memory that has been
simplified, enriched, or distorted,
depending on an individual’s
experiences and attitudes
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Recall (cont.)
• One type of mistake is called
confabulation, which is when a person
“remembers” information that was never
stored in memory. 
• If our reconstruction of an event is
incomplete, we fill in the gaps by making
up what is missing. 
• Sometimes we may be wrong.
confabulation
the act of filling in memory gaps
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Recall (cont.)
• Occasionally our memories are
reconstructed in terms of our schemas. 
• These are conceptual frameworks we use
to make sense of the world. 
• They are sets of expectations about
something that is based on our past
experiences.
schemas
conceptual frameworks a
person uses to make sense
of the world
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Recall (cont.)
• About 5 percent of all children do not
seem to reconstruct memories actively. 
• They have an eidetic memory–a form of
“photographic memory”–an ability shared
by few adults. 
• Children with eidetic memory can recall
very specific details from a picture, a
page, or a scene briefly viewed.
eidetic memory
the ability to remember with
great accuracy visual
information on the basis of
short-term memory
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State-Dependent Learning
• Have you ever become upset at someone
and while doing so remembered many past
instances of when you were upset at the
same person? 
• This is an example of state-dependent
learning. 
• State-dependent learning occurs when
you recall information easily when you are
in the same physiological or emotional
state or setting as you were when you
originally encoded the information.
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Relearning
• While recognition and recall are
measures of declarative memory,
relearning is a measure of both
declarative and procedural memory. 
• Suppose you learned a poem as a child
but have not rehearsed it in years. 
• If you can relearn the poem with fewer
recitations than someone with ability
similar to yours, you are benefiting from
your childhood learning.
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Forgetting
• Everyone experiences a failure of
memory from time to time. 
• Forgetting may involve decay, interference,
or repression. 
• Some inputs may fade away, or decay,
over time. 
• Items quickly decay in sensory storage and
short-term memory.
decay
fading away of memory
over time
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Forgetting (cont.)
• Interference refers to a memory being
blocked or erased by previous or
subsequent memories. 
• There are two kinds of blocking: proactive
and retroactive. 
• It may be that interference actually does
erase some memories permanently.
interference
blockage of a memory by
previous or subsequent memories
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Amnesia
• Some people also forget information due
to amnesia. 
• Amnesia is a loss of memory that may
occur after a blow to the head or as a
result of brain damage. 
• Amnesia may also be the result of drug
use or severe psychological stress. 
• Infant amnesia is the relative lack of early
declarative memories. 
• Psychologists have proposed several
theories to explain infant amnesia. 
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Improving Memory
• Techniques for improving memory are
based on efficient organization of the
things you learn and on chunking
information into easily handled packages.
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Meaningfulness and Association
• Using repetition, or maintenance
rehearsal, can help you remember for a
short period of time. 
• In this method, words are merely repeated
with no attempt to find meaning. 
• A more efficient way of remembering new
information involves elaborate rehearsal.
elaborate rehearsal
the linking of new information to
material that is already known
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Meaningfulness and Association (cont.)
• You remember things more vividly if you
associate them with things already
stored in memory or with a strong
emotional experience. 
• A good way to protect a memory from
interference is to overlearn it–to keep on
rehearsing it even after you think you
know it well. 
• Another way to prevent interference while
learning new material is to avoid studying
similar material together.
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Meaningfulness and Association (cont.)
• In addition, how you originally learn or
remember something influences how
readily you recall that information later. 
• If a bit of information is associated with a
highly emotional event or if you learned
this bit of information in absence of
interference, you will more easily recall
that information because of the strength
of that memory.
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Mnemonic Devices
• Techniques for using associations to
memorize information are called
mnemonic devices. 
• Mnemonic devices are not magical;
indeed, they involve extra work–making
up words, stories, and so on. 
• The very effort of trying to do this,
however, may help you remember things.
mnemonic devices
techniques for using
associations to memorize and
retrieve information
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Psychology Journal (Section 2)
Compare your memories of an event with a
friend who experienced the same event.
Write down how your memories are similar
and how they are different. Explain the
differences using the information you are
learning in this chapter.
The Case
Case Studies
1 of
H.M.
Read the case study presented on
page 281 of your textbook. Be
prepared to answer the questions that
appear on the following slides. A
discussion prompt and additional
information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
2 of
H.M.
What type of surgery did H.M.
have? Why?
H.M. had the hippocampus area of his brain
removed in an attempt to stop, or at least
minimize, the occurrence of epileptic seizures.
Continued on next slide.
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answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
3 of
H.M.
What problems did H.M. encounter
following the surgery? Why?
H.M. could not form new long-term memories.
The hippocampus plays an important role in the
formation of memories. It is not involved in
storing long-term memory, but it does act as a
pathway through which information travels.
Continued on next slide.
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answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
4 of
H.M.
Critical Thinking If a virus suddenly
destroyed your hippocampus, what
effect would it have on your performance
in school?
You would not be able to pass tests on new
material, although you would still be able to
perform well on aptitude tests of learning that
had occurred before the virus destroyed
the hippocampus.
Continued on next slide.
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answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
5 of
H.M.
Discuss the following:
Why do you think H.M.’s existing
memories were unaffected? What does
the fact that he could still learn motor
skills tell you about procedural memory?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
6 of
H.M.
Unlike other parts of the brain, the hippocampus
continues to grow throughout your lifetime.
Researchers are making efforts to boost the
production of these brain cells. 
Researchers are currently exploring links between
stress hormones such as corticosteroids and
memory loss. Studies in rats have shown that by
blocking stress hormones, the production of brain
cells in the hippocampus increased.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
The Case
Case Studies
7 of
H.M.
Since the body needs stress hormones, which
are produced by the adrenal glands, it is not
possible to remove these glands. Researchers,
however, may be able to develop drugs to limit
the production of the hormones and boost the
production of brain cells.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
FYI 2.1
People tend to forget more quickly
information that does not correspond with
their own image of themselves. As a person’s
self-image changes, so does the information
he or she recalls about the past. This process
is known as autobiographical memory.
Cultural Connections 2.1
Dutch chess master and psychologist Adrian de Groot wanted
to know what separated a good chess player from a grand
master. He reviewed the simultaneous displays and blindfold
demonstrations that amaze onlookers. In simultaneous
displays, grand masters take on several challengers at the
same time. They move from board to board and make moves
with seeming ease. In blindfold demonstrations, the grand
master plays the game blindfolded, being told his or her
opponent’s moves. In his research, de Groot found that the
primary difference between grand masters and good chess
players is the ability to recall chess positions. Grand masters
seem to have an almost instinctive recall of thousands of past
chess moves.
Psychology and You 2.1
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 283 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Will you be likely to have the same
recall ability with the people you
work with on your first job? Why or
why not?
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Psychology and You 2.2
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 288 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Why does thinking about something
else help you remember the
information you were searching for?
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information.
End of Slide Show
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