Transcript unit 7a memoryx

Unit 7A:
Cognition: Memory
What is Memory?
Human memory is an
information processing
system that works
constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve
information
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Metaphors for Memory
Cognitive psychologists see
human memory more as an
interpretive system, such as an
artist, rather than a system that
takes an accurate recording,
such as a video recorder
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Human Memory is
Good at:
Information on which attention is focused
Information in which we are interested
Information that arouses us emotionally
Information that fits with our previous
experiences
Information that we rehearse
Information Processing Model
Encoding - getting information
into the memory system
Storage - the retaining of
encoded information over time
Retrieval - getting encoded
information out of memory
storage
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
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Storage
Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Involves
modification of
information to fit
the preferred
format of the
memory system
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Storage
Retrieval
Elaboration –
Deliberate encoding in
which you connect a
new concept with
existing information
Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Involves
retention of
encoded
material over
time
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Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Involves the
location and
recovery of
information
from memory
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Encoding
The processing of information into the
memory system.
Typing info into a computer
Getting a girls name at a
party
Storage
The retention of encoded
material over time.
Pressing Ctrl S and
saving the info.
Trying to remember her
name when you leave
the party.
Retrieval
The process of getting the information out
of memory storage.
Finding your
document and
opening it up.
Seeing her the next
day and calling her
the wrong name
(retrieval failure).
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
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Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Preserves brief
sensory
impressions of
stimuli
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal, also called
short-term memory or
STM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Long-term
Memory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Stores material
organized
according to
meaning, also
called LTM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see
a series of letters for one
second
Try to remember as many
letters as you can
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DJB
XHG
C LY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
DJB
XHG
C LY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Sensory Memory
 The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the
memory system
Iconic store – visual
information,
½ second
Echoic store – sound
information,
2-3 seconds
 Information held just long enough to make a decision
on its importance
Sensory Memory
The actual capacity of sensory memory can be
twelve or more items
All but three or four items disappear before they
can enter consciousness
There is a separate sensory register for each
sense
Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory
images take the form of nerve impulses
Storage: Retaining Information
Working/Short-Term Memory
Magic number Seven
Plus or minus 2
The list of magic sevens
 Seven wonders of world
 Seven seas
 Seven deadly sins
 Seven primary colors
 Seven musical scale notes
 Seven days of the week
Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
Chunking –
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller
number of meaningful units
Maintenance rehearsal –
Process in which information is repeated or
reviewed to keep it from fading while in working
memory
Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
Elaborative rehearsal –
Process in which information is actively
reviewed and related to information
already in LTM
Making connections to previous memories
will improve retrieval of new memory
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Ebbinghaus curve
Semantic Encoding
The encoding of
meaning
Encoding information
that is meaningful
enhances recall
Semantic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding
Encoding information
based on the sounds of the
information
Acoustic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Visual Encoding
Encoding information
based on the images of the
information
Visual Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Encoding Errors
Answer the following questions:
 Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone dial?
 What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The
bottom stripe?
 How many sides do most wooden pencils have?
 In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
 The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is on
the back of a $10 bill? A $5 bill? A $1 bill?
 What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S.
coins?
Answers
 Which letters do not appear on the old standard
telephone dial? A: Q and Z
 What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag?
The bottom stripe? A: Red for both
 How many sides do most wooden pencils have? A: Six
 In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
A: Right
 The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill.
What is on the back of a $10 bill? (Treasury Building) A $5
bill? (Lincoln Memorial) A $1 bill? (The word “One”)
 What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on
most U.S. coins? A: United States of America
The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
Procedural memory (IMPLICIT)–
Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are
done
Declarative memory (EXPLICIT) –
Division of LTM that stores explicit information
(also known as fact memory)
TYPES OF MEMORIES
The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
Episodic memory –
Subdivision of declarative
memory that stores memories for
personal events, or “episodes”
Semantic memory –
Subdivision of declarative memory
that stores general knowledge,
including meanings of words and
concepts
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Storage: Retaining Information
Storing Memories in the Brain
Stress Hormones and Memory
Emotions and memories
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event.
Storage: Retaining Information
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited nature of long-term memory
MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE
OF NUMBERS
5761284322
What were the numbers???
5761284322
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and
last items in a list
Primacy effect – the ability to recall
information near the beginning of a
list
Recency effect – the ability to recall
information near the end of a list
Primacy/Recency Effect
or
Serial Position Effect
(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Spacing effect
Massed practice
Distributed practice
Testing effect
Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves
Retrieval
The process of getting
information out of memory
storage
Two forms of retrieval
Recall
Recognition
Recall
A measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information
learned earlier
Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank,
and short answer test questions test
recall
Recognition
A measure of memory in which
a person must identify items
learned earlier
Example: Multiple choice and
matching test questions test
recognition
Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful
Sleepy Smiley Jumpy
Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey
Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy
Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful
Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty
Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby
Poopy
Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
Context Effect
The enhanced ability to
retrieve information when you
are in an environment similar to
the one in which you encoded
the information
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Context Effects
Context
State Dependent Memory
The enhanced ability to
retrieve information when the
person is in the same physical
and emotional state they were
in when they encoded the
information