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Educators Professional Day 10/04/10
Neurophysiological Foundations of
Learning & Evidence-Based
Teaching
Ahmed M. Abdelal, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Assistant Professor of Communication Sciences & Disorders
Department of Special Education & Communication Disorders
[email protected]
Phone: 508-531-6146
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDbY7Jf31I
LEARNING
STAGES
&
STRATEGIES
Learning
“Learning is the process in which neurons that
fire together to produce a particular experience
are altered so that they have a tendency to fire
together again. The subsequent combined
firing of the neurons reconstructs the original
experience, producing a ‘recollection’ of it. The
act of recollecting makes the neurons involved
even more likely to fire again in the future.”
(Carter, et al 2009, 154)
Relationship Between Learning & Memory
Leaning is “the process by
which we acquire knowledge
about the world, while memory
is the process by which that
knowledge is encoded, stored,
and later retrieved”
(Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000, p. 1227)
Types of Memory Based on Duration

Immediate memory
Capacity of 7 items
 Only 30 seconds, if info not rehearsed
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Working Memory (WM)
Phonological loop (verbal info)
 Visuospatial sketch pad (faces, images, spatial layouts)
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WM sustains info for 0.5 sec. to 10 min.
 Long-term memory
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Learning & Emotions
“Our memories are
personal and evocative,
intertwined with emotion,
and they provide us with a
sense of who we are.”
(Squire & Kandel 2010, 75)
How Learning Changes Brain Structure
 Any
type of learning must result in
physical changes in brain structure:
 Cellular
changes
 Birth of new neurons (Neurogenesis)
 Expansion of existing networks
 Creation of new circuits
How Learning Changes Brain Structure

Cellular changes in the existing neurons:
Strengthening existing synaptic connections
 Growth of new synaptic branches and production
of neurotransmitter components in presynaptic
neurons
 Translation and transcription of specific genes
 Production of new receptor proteins and inserting
them along the membrane of the postsynaptic
neuron

Primary Centers of Learning
 Hippocampus
 Amygdala
 Medial
temporal
lobe
 PF cortex
 Association
cortices
© A. Abdelal, Ph.D.,
Phases of Learning
For information to be retained in LT
memory, it has to be processed in phases
 Each phase involves specific neural
pathways, and structural modifications

Perception
 Pre-encoding
 Encoding
 Transfer
 Imprinting
 Storage
 Retrieval
 Consolidation

Setting the Stage for Learning
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Motivation and emotional response direct
our attention
Information cannot enter into the memory
system unless it is attended to
Attend to a piece of info for about 0.2 sec.
Attention intensifies the experience by
triggering neurons to fire more frequently

The more a neuron fires the stronger its
connections are with other neurons (Squire 07,77)
Preparatory Phase: Pre-encoding Mechanism
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There are specific areas “pre-prepared to store
new information, even before the stimuli are
collected and coded”
If these areas are activated in time for
encoding, encoding & recall will efficient
This pre-encoding circuit is activated by:
Good self-esteem
 Strong motivation
 Positive attitude
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(Atlas of Human Physiology, 2009, 166-167)
Working Memory & Executive Functions

Executive functions: location?
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Develop, pursue & focus on goals; sustain
attention, allocate attentional resources, monitor
our own work toward the goal; regulate our
behavior, etc.
Behavioral inhibition suppresses distractions
Working Memory: PFC Sensory center
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Holds material to guide on-going behavior and cognition
Info gets shuttled back and forth from frontal cortex to
the sensory cortex that initially registered it.
Encoding
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The process by
which new
information is
attended to and
processed when it is
first encountered
(Kandel et al., 2000)
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Mediated by the
hippocampus & PFC
New info reaching the
hippocampus induces
activation of pathways
to previous info
What Happens During Encoding
 Activation
of previous information
 Evaluation of the new information
 Analysis
 Organization
 Integration
 Reassembling and synthesis
Encoding Mechanisms

Neurotransmitters
Noreadrenaline/Norepinephrine
 Acetylcholine
 Serotonin
 Dopamine
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Proteins
C-Kinase
 Synapsin 1

Neurogenesis During Encoding
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Occupies the first 20 minutes of learning
Newly born neurons immediately enter the
memory pathways individually
Enter
 Exit
 Re-enter and stay
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They appear to imprint the new information
and integrate it with previous information
They mediate forgetfulness of irrelevant
information
Efficiency of Encoding
 Encoding
determines the efficiency
of retrieval.
 Efficiency
of retrieval depends on the
cues & strategies used while the info
is being encoded, rather than the
strategies used during the retrieval
process.
What Determines Efficiency of Encoding
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Emotional content of the info: happy vs sad
Motivation & level of interest cause deep
encoding and subconscious rehearsal
Effort learner puts into practicing recall of info
Novelty
(Carter et al, 2009, 154)
Extent to which the info is:
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Organized
Related to previous knowledge
Rehearsed after it has been presented
(Squire & Kandel 2009, 74)
Efficiency of Encoding: Elaborative Encoding
 Elaborative/deep
encoding is better
than shallow/superficial encoding
 Breaking
down info
 Discussing the meaning of each part
 Relating the info to previous knowledge
 Asking questions in the process
 Example
Retrieval

The process of recalling stored
information through reactivating the
pattern or pathways in which the
information was originally stored.
(Nelson, 2005)

Retrieval is a reconstructive process that
involves pulling pieces of info from
various storage sites and integrating
them into a coherent whole.
Retrieval …
Either involuntary or intentional
 Intentional retrieval is required for
adequate academic performance and
similar goal-directed behavior.
 Requires:

 Executive
functioning & WM
 Attentional resources
 Strategic memory searching
Retrieval …
 Involves
gene expression and
protein synthesis and insertion
along pathways
 Any interruption of these cellular
processes (e.g., stress, anxiety,
etc.) prevents the formation of
long-term memories
Retrieval: Facts & Strategies
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Previous knowledge promotes efficient recall
of new information
Experts have superior abilities in
remembering info related to there area of
expertise, but “have no special gift for
recalling details that are not meaningful to
their area of expertise”
Memory exercises do not improve retrieval
(Squire & Kandel 2009, 77-78)
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Teaching Environment
Foster a friendly relationship with
students, characterized by mutual respect
 Create a flexible teaching environment
free from tension and anxiety
 Have the students move about in the
classroom, whenever possible: to provide
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physical mobility & reduce tension
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Reduce your own stress to avoid stressing your
students
► Perseveration Effect/Rigidity
► Always adopt a positive communication style
► Yes, smile at the kids and use humor
► void negative feedback
►
► Always
be positive, even if the student’s
answer is incorrect – student’s learn from
mistakes
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
► Avoid
Habituation:
►Elicit
student interaction
►Avoid monotone
►Vary loudness, tone, and accent frequently
►Do not stand or sit still for an extended
period of time
►Change topic points every 5-10 minutes
►Use humor
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Ensure adequate encoding (quality over quantity)
► Guide students to the correct answer by asking stepby-step questions
► Keep in mind that students have different learning
styles
► Two major interactive learning styles:
► Experiential/Narrative Style
► Rational/Expository Style
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A combination of both styles is expected to produce the
best results
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Experiential
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Teaching through:
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Stories
Settings
Intentions
Emotions
Plots
Acting and role-playing
Metaphors and similes
Personal experiences
Rational
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Teaching through:
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Analysis
Logical explanations
Abstract ideas, etc.
Completely
removed from direct
experience
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
The familiarity effect
 Provide lesson previews a week or two
prior to in-depth presentation of lessons
 Implications for:
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 Arabic
Instruction
 English Instruction to nonnative speakers
 Exercise
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Power of Retrieval (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Anderson, 1995)
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Strengthens existing synaptic connections
Establishes new synaptic connections
Strengthens memory pathways between
hippocampus and storage sites
Leads to cognitive efficiency
First few revisions are the most important
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First revision  40%
Second revision  80-90%
Third revision  95%
Then, get a good night’s sleep!
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
Power of Retrieval
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The more frequently the information is
retrieved, the stronger the pathway, and the
faster the activation
Information not retrieved for an extended
period of time might take longer to reactivate
or might be forgotten
Context & Strength of cues are related to
strength of retrieval
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Retrieval is best when in same context and in
presence of initial cues used during encoding
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
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Create opportunities for student interaction:
► Heighten
student curiosity, and ask questions to
make them actively engaged in the information
► Provide hands-on learning experiences and
concrete examples
► Teach
information in an organized way
► Use controlled, deep semantic encoding
► Allow for transition time when shifting
between topics to avoid interference
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based
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Testing promotes “better long-term
retention than restudying” (Squire & Kandel 2009, 77).
Prior knowledge of test format impr. perf.
High-protein breakfast prior to major exams
Focusing on concepts is best for essay tests
Focusing on details is best study for multiplechoice tests
Visual presentation is extremely powerful:
“Nearly half of the cortex is dedicated to processing visual information” (Squire & Kandel
2009, 77)
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Use testing as a teaching tool
 Protein breakfast on morning of
Testing
 Advise parents who smoke not to do so
in the presence of their children:
 Decreased recall, attention & tooth
decay
 Sleep is crucial
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Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Sleep & Dreaming
Sleep plays a direct role in WM, executive
functioning, behavioral inhibition, and
attention
 Plays a crucial role in consolidation of
new learning
 Regulates neurotransmitters
 Learning and memory circuits are
reactivated during sleep
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Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
Sleep & Dreaming
 Information
is reprocessed during
sleep
 Plays a pivotal role in neuroplasticity
 Different types of learning require
different stages of sleep
 Speed of processing in sleep is faster
than in real time
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
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Regulate Sleep
Seek medical help for velopharyngeal obstruction
(causes snoring, sleep apnea, and weight gain)
Avoiding studying over an extended number of
hours
Avoid studying late into the night
Organize your studying/learning environment
Organize the information while you are learning it
The method of loci could be an effective tool for
exam preparation
Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based
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Physical Exercises:
 Reduce
stress
 Improve blood flow to the brain
 Improve brain plasticity : increases
synaptic density, and positive effects of
Ach
 Increase amount of oxygen in blood
stream
 In adults, decreases risk for memory
disorders, Alzheimer’s, and dementia.
Conclusion
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What you teach changes the structure of the brain
Set a positive tone for the day
Mood & Motivational states play a major role in determining
the efficiency of encoding and retrieval of new learning
Learning is an-experience and time dependent process
The lengthy consolidation allows the brain time to reconfigure itself in response to the new information
Get the parents involved to implement healthy sleep and
dietary habits