Transcript Memory PPT

Introductory Psychology:
Memory
AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT 6
Objective: 12/7/16
 Provided notes & activities SWBAT describe memory
in terms of info.processing & distinguish various
types of memory.
Agenda:
 Do Now
 Notes
 Activities
Do Now:
1. Complete the memory Pre-Test, see how much you
know about memory!
2. Read some memory questions and answers
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
 Memory storage is never automatic; it always
takes effort

False
 When people go around a circle saying their
names, their poorest memories are for what
was said by the person directly in front of
them

True
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
 Memory aids (for example, those that use
imagery and devices for organization) are no
more useful than simple rehearsal of
information

False
 Only a few people have any type of
photographic memory

False
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
 Although our capacity for storing
information is large, we are still limited in
the number of permanent memories we can
form

False
 When people learn something while
intoxicated, they recall it best when
intoxicated

True
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
 The hour before sleep is a good time to
commit information to memory

True
 The confidence of eyewitnesses is an
important predictor of their accuracy

False
Memory:
The Basics
PART ONE
Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)
Memory: The Basics
 Memory
 An active system that
receives information from
the senses, puts it into a
usable form, organizes it
while storing it away, and
then retrieves it from
storage

Any indication that learning
has persisted over time
 The mind’s storehouse with all accumulated learning
Memory: The Basics
 Three big questions…
 How does information
get into memory?
 How is information
maintained in memory?
 How is information
pulled back out of
memory?
Memory: The Basics
Entering data
through a
keyboard
Saving data to
a flash drive
Displaying
data on a
monitor
Memory:
Encoding
PART TWO
“Get that info in there..!”
Memory: Encoding
 Encoding
 The set of mental operations performed on sensory
information to convert it into a form that is usable in
the brain’s storage systems

Types of Encoding
 Automatic Processing
• Unconscious processing of incidental information
• Space, time, frequency and well-learned information
• Example: Flashbulb Memories

Effortful Processing
• Conscious processing that requires attention and effort
• Example: Rehearsal
Memory: Encoding
 Memory Effects
 Next-in-Line-Effect


Spacing Effect


When we are next in line, we focus on our own
performance & often fail to process the last person’s
words
We retain information better when we rehearse over
time
Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first terms in a
list
Levels of Processing
Memory: Encoding
 Visual/Structural Encoding
 The encoding of images
 Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
 Level of Processing


SHALLOW
Example
Extravagant
 “Is the word written in capital letters?”
 Boy
 “How many letters are in this word?”

Memory: Encoding
 Acoustic/Phonemic Encoding
 The encoding of sound
 Emphasizes what a word sounds like
 Level of Processing


INTERMEDIATE
Example

Bait
 “Does the word rhyme with weight?”
Memory: Encoding
 Semantic Encoding
 The encoding of meaning
 Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
 Level of Processing


DEEP
Example

Bobcat
 Would the word fit in the sentence: “He met a ______
on the street?”
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Encoding Enrichment
Memory: Encoding
 Elaboration
 Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of
encoding
Helps to enhance semantic encoding
 Example
 You read that phobias are often caused by classical
conditioning
 You apply this idea to your own fear of spiders


Self-Referent Encoding

People’s recall of information tends to be slanted in favor
of material that is relevant to them
Memory: Encoding
 Visual Imagery
 The creation of visual images to represent words; can
be used to enrich encoding


Facilities memory by providing a second kind of code
Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986)

Memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual
codes, since either can lead to recall
 Concrete v. abstract words
•
•
•
•
High-high (juggler-dress)
High-low (letter-effort)
Low-high (duty-hotel)
Low-low (quality-necessity)
Memory: Encoding
 Mnemonics
 Memory aids, especially those techniques that use
vivid imagery and organizational devices

Two helpful mnemonic methods
 Method of Loci
• Matching items with an imagined location

Link Method (“Peg-Word” Method)
• Memorize a ditty and then apply to topic
 “One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a
door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is
a gate, nine is a swine, ten is a hen”
Memory: Encoding
 Chunking
 Organizing items into familiar, manageable units;
often occurs automatically
1–7–7–6–1–4–9–2–1–8–1–2–1–9–4–1
Acronyms are another way of
chunking information…
HOMES
PEMDAS
ROYGBIV
Memory: Encoding
 Hierarchy
 Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories and
subcategories

Increases the likelihood of recall and recognition
 Outline notes, concept maps, flow charts, etc.
Memory:
Storage
PART THREE
“Keep that info in there..!”
Memory: Storage
 Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory
Storage (1971)

Three stores of memory are shown below
Memory: Storage
 Sensory Memory
 Preserves information in its
original sensory form for a brief
time, usually only a fraction of a
second
Iconic Memory
 Momentary sensory memory of
visual stimuli
 Lasts no more than a half a second
 Echoic Memory
 Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
 Lasts no more than 4 seconds

Memory: Storage
 Short-Term Memory (STM)
 A limited-capacity store that can maintain
unrehearsed information for about 10-20 seconds
Capacity (George Miller, 1956)
 7±2 items
 Even less in more modern studies?
 Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about
4 chunks in short-term memory
 FB-INB-CC-IAIB-M
 FBI-NBC-CIA-IBM
 How to increase duration? Capacity?

Memory: Storage
 Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 An unlimited capacity store that can hold information
over lengthy periods of time

Though we have a huge capacity for storage, we don’t
store most information with exactness
Memory: Storage
 Physical Location of Memories
 Memory is NOT stored in a single spot
 Synaptic Change


When learning occurs serotonin is released by the
neurons of certain synapses
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Synaptic enhancement after learning
 An increase in the release of neurotransmitter or
receptors on the receiving neuron indicates the
strengthening of synapses
Types of Memory
Memory: Storage
 Implicit Memory
 Without conscious recall
 Nondeclarative Memory
 Actions, skills, conditioned responses & emotional
responses

Also known as Procedural Memory
 Skill Memory
• Riding a bike, typing, tying one’s shoes

Automatic Reactions
• Tensing up at the sound of a dentist’s drill
Memory: Storage
 Explicit Memory
 Conscious recall
 Declarative Memory
 Recollection of words, definitions, names, dates,
faces, events, concepts and ideas

Two types of Explicit Memories
 Semantic Memory
• General knowledge that is not tied to a specific time

Episodic Memory
• Chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of
personal experiences
Representation &
Organization
Memory: Storage
 How is knowledge represented and organized
in memory?




Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas
Semantic Networks
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models
Brewer
&
Treyens
(1981)
Schema Demonstration
Memory: Storage
 Semantic Networks
 Consists of nodes
representing concepts,
joined together by
pathways that link
related concepts

Less systematic than
conceptual hierarchies
and/or schemas
Memory: Storage
 Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model
 Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns
of activation in highly interconnected computational
networks that resemble neural networks
Consists of large networks of interconnected nodes
 Operate much like neurons (excitatory/inhibitory
effects)
 Asserts that specific memories correspond to particular
patterns of activation in these networks

Memory: Retrieval
PART FOUR
“Get that info out of there..!”
Memory: Retrieval
 Measures of Memory
 Recall


Recognition


A measure of memory in which a person must
retrieve/reproduce information in the absence of cues
A measure of memory in which a person must identify
items previously learned
Relearning

A measure of memory that assess the amount of time
saved when learning material for a second time
Retrieval Cues
Memory: Retrieval
 Retrieval Cues
 Stimuli that help gain
access to stored memories;
serve as anchor points
Mnemonic Devices
 Priming
 Context Cues
 Déjà Vu

Memory: Retrieval
 Priming
 The activation, often
unconsciously, of
particular associations
in memory
 Often referred to as
“memory-less memory”

Occurs without explicit
remembering
Memory: Retrieval
 Context Effects
 Involves placing yourself
in the context where you
initially experienced
something


Helps to prime memory
retrieval
May trigger déjà vu

Cues from the current
situation that may
subconsciously trigger the
retrieval of a similar experience in one’s past
Mood & Memories
Memory: Retrieval
 State-Dependent
Memory

What someone learns in
particular state, is more
easily recalled when
he/she is again in that
state

Someone who hides
money while drunk may
forget its location until
drunk again
Memory: Retrieval
 Mood-Congruent
Memory

We usually recall
experiences that are
consistent with our
current mood
In a bad mood, one may
interpret someone’s look
as a glare
 In a good mood, one may encode the same look as
interest

Memory: Forgetting
PART FIVE
“Where’d that info go?”
Memory: Forgetting
 Forgetting
 The inability to retrieve information due to poor
encoding, storage or retrieval

The SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY
 Absent-mindedness
 Transience
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence
Memory: Forgetting
 Encoding Failure
 Obviously, we will not remember what we fail to
encode

Without encoding, information never enters into one’s
long-term memory
 EXAMPLE: Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test
 NOTE: Age can impact encoding…
Memory: Forgetting
 Storage Decay
 Poor durability of stored
memories leads to their
decay

Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1885)
 The Forgetting Curve
• The course of forgetting is initially rapid, but levels off
over time
Memory: Forgetting
 Retrieval Failure
 Although the information is retained in the memory
store, it cannot be accessed

You may lack the information needed to retrieve it
 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Memory: Forgetting
 Proactive Interference (Forward)
 The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of
new information
As you collect more information, your mental “attic”
becomes cluttered
 Example
 You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new
phone number
 Your memory of the old phone number interferes with
the new one

Memory: Forgetting
 Retroactive Interference (Backward)
 The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of
old information


Example
 You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new
phone number
 Your new phone number interferes with your memory
of the old one
Sleep prevents retroactive interference & leads to
better recall
Memory: Forgetting
 Motivated Forgetting
 The unknowing revision of memories
Freud proposed that our memory systems do indeed selfcensor painful information
 Repression
 A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness


Memory researchers think repression, rarely, if ever,
occurs
Let’s Review…
 Ellen can’t recall the provisions of the Treaty
of Guadalupe Hidalgo because she was
daydreaming when it was discussed in
history class

Ineffective encoding (lack of attention)
 Rufus hates his job at Taco Haven &
constantly forgets when he is scheduled to
work

Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)
Let’s Review…
 Ray’s new assistant is named Jason
Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin.

Proactive Interference
 Tania studied history on Sunday morning &
sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday,
and she’s struggling with her history test
because she keeps confusing prominent
historians with influential sociologists.

Retroactive Interference
Memory: Reconstruction
PART SIX
Memory: Reconstruction
 Misconception
 Memory is a mental videotape that can provide
faithful reproductions of past events
 Reality
 Countless studies in recent decades have
demonstrated that memories are incomplete,
distorted, fuzzy reconstructions of past events
 The adjectives that best describe memory are not
exact or accurate, but rather fragile, fallible and
malleable
Memory: Reconstruction
 The Misinformation Effect
 The incorporation of misleading information into
one’s memory of an event
Eyewitnesses must reconstruct their memories when
questioned about an event; rarely accurate
 Loftus & Palmer (1974)
 The Automobile Accident Test
 Group A: Hit
 Group B: Smashed
 Weeks later…broken glass?


Impact of storytelling on memories?
Memory: Reconstruction
 Reality Monitoring
 Refers to the process of deciding whether memories
are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of
actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and
imaginations)

Impact of sensory and/or contextual information?
 Did I take my medicine this morning?
 Did I lock my car door?
 Did I turn off the oven?
 Did I pack my umbrella?
Memory: Reconstruction
 Source Monitoring
 Involves making attributions about the origins of
memories
Did I read that in the NY Times or in Rolling Stone?
 Did that come from Anchorman or I Love You, Man?


Source Monitoring Error (Source Amnesia)

When a memory derived from one source is
misattributed to another source
 “I read that in my Psychology textbook!”
• (When you really heard it on Dr. Phil…)

Songwriters?
Memory: Reconstruction
 Types of Amnesia
 Retrograde Amnesia


Involves the loss of
memories for events that
occurred prior to the onset
of amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia

Involves the loss of
memories for events that occur after the onset of
amnesia
 The Case of H.M. (Henry Molasion)