Transcript CUTLA Presentation

Long-Term Memory
Dr. Claudia J. Stanny
EXP 4507
Memory & Cognition
Spring 2009
Overview
• Types of Long Term Memory
• Relation between encoding and retrieval
• Encoding processes and their
consequences
• Retrieval strategies
• Autobiographical memory
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Long Term Memory:
Ebbinghaus (1885) Long-term Retention Functions
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Types of Long Term Memory
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Distinctive Characteristics of LTM
Organization of information
• Schemas
Capacity
Duration
• Bahrick: permastore
Encoding – impact on retention
Retrieval mechanisms
• Forgetting: availability versus accessablity
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Encoding Strategies:
Levels of Processing
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Orienting tasks assigned at study to induce
different levels of processing
• Shallow processing (physical features of stimuli)
Does the word contain an E or a G?
Is the word presented in capital or lower case letters?
• Intermediate processing
Write down a word that begins with the same sound.
• Deep processing (semantic encoding)
Rate words on your perception of their PLEASANTNESS
(1 = UNPLEASANT
7 = PLEASANT)
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Recognition performance for words
processed at different levels
Data from EXP 3082 (2002)
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Variations on Deep Processing
What kinds of processing “count” as deep
processing?
Distinctive encoding
• Encoding differs or makes a stimulus stand out
• Isolation effects; unique encodings
Elaborate encoding
• Create a code that includes multiple aspects
• Complex codes; many connections to other
representations
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Self-Reference Effect
Processing task:
Does this word relate to you?
Recognition performance is as good as for a
semantic processing task
Biggest improvement seen when participants
think the word does apply to them (46%) than
when it does not (34%)
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Generation Effect
Slamecka & Graf (1978)
What is the effect of processing depth when you
generate the code yourself versus when you
have the coding given to you?
Read Condition
• Shallow:
• Deep:
SAVE – CAVE
SEA – OCEAN
Generate Condition
• Shallow:
• Deep:
SAVE – C____ (rhyme)
SEA – O_____ (synonym)
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CAVE
OCEAN
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Encoding Specificity
Match between cues encoded at study and cues
available during retrieval
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Emotion, Mood and Memory
Pollyanna Principle
Rate of forgetting for pleasant & unpleasant
events
Mood-dependent congruence
Mood-dependent memory (encoding specificity)
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Retrieval from LTM
Types of Retention Tasks
Explicit Memory Tasks
• Aware that memory is being used/tested
• Subjective experience of intentional use of
memory
Implicit Memory Tasks
• Task is perceived as a problem-solving task or
other cognitive challenge
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Comparing Memory Tasks
Explicit Memory Tasks
Recall
Cued recall
Recognition tests
Implicit Memory Tasks
Word completion task
V__L__A__E
Word stem completion task
yes/no recognition
multiple choice tests
OC __ __ __
Repetition priming (RT tasks)
Lexical decision task
Anagram solving
LVGEALI → _______
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Evidence for different types of LTM
Dissociation of performance on explicit and implicit
memory tasks
Variables improve performance on explicit memory but
do not influence implicit memory performance
• Depth of processing
Variables improve implicit memory performance but do
not influence explicit memory
• Benefits of number of repetitions
Note: some variables have the same effect on both
types of task (proactive interference)
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Effect of LOP on performance on an
implicit and an explicit memory task
Shallow processing task
• Does the word have a B
or a P?
Deep processing task
• Rate the word on its
pleasantness (1 – 7)
Implicit memory test
• Anagram task
Explicit memory test
• Free recall
Data: EXP 4507L Spring 2006
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Amnesia
Differences in performance by amnesiacs on
implicit and explicit memory tasks
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How do experts differ from novices?
Amount of knowledge in area of expertise
Quality of organization of information in LTM
• More efficient encoding of new information
• More successful retrieval of information
Differences in cognitive strategies used
• Chunking and organization of new material
• Identifying distinctive characteristics of stimuli
• Procedures used to solve problems
Better metacognition about processing
• Judgments about task difficulty
• Monitoring progress on a problem
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Expertise is Context-Specific
Expertise emerges from extensive deliberate
practice in a particular domain
• 10 years of deliberate practice required (Ericsson, 2003)
Expertise in one domain does not make one an
expert in every domain
• Superior memory performance in one area of
expertise does not generalize to superior memory
performance in general
• Problem identification and efficient solution is also
domain-specific
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Autobiographical Memory
Special case of episodic memory
Memory for events of our personal life
Interaction with semantic memory:
• Role of schemas in autobiographical recall
• Consistency bias
Source monitoring
• Identifying the origin of a memory or belief
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Recall of autobiographical memories
across the life span (Rubin, 1997)
Reminiscence Bump
Forgetting Function
Infantile Amnesia
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Flashbulb Memories
Highly detailed episodic memories of an event
Contain many autobiographical details
• Source information for the news of the event
• Detailed contextual information
Where you were, what you were doing, who you talked
to, what your emotional response was, etc.
Are flashbulb memories special?
Do they include errors seen in other memories?
Are they subject to forgetting like other memories?
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Eyewitness Memory
Estimator Variables
• Characteristics of the witness or witnessed event known to
have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections
System Variables
• Characteristics of the legal / investigative process known to
have an influence on accuracy of witness recollections
Variables that produce memory distortions
• Misleading questioning
• Post-Information effects
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Factors that influence the accuracy
of eyewitness memory
Delays between the event and recall
Intrusions related to misinformation
Reconstructive nature of memory
Schema-based intrusions
Social pressure
Demand characteristics of questioning the encourage
production of more information or a specific answer
Positive feedback following identifications during
lineups increases confidence without increasing
accuracy
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