Transcript Sensory Memory

Introductory Psychology Lectures
A series of PowerPoint lectures to accompany the introductory
psychology textbooks offered by Worth publishers
Editor: Harvey G. Shulman, Ph.D.
Memory
Joe Williams
The Ohio State University
Department of Psychology
© 1999 The Ohio State University & Worth Publishers.
1
Modal Model of the Mind
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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2
Modal Model of the Mind
 Three memory store that differ in function, capacity and
duration
 Control processes - control movement of information
within and between memory stores
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
© 1999 The Ohio State University & Worth Publishers.
3
Sensory Memory Store
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
 Function - holds
information long enough
to be processed for basic
physical characteristics
 Capacity - large
can hold many items at
once
 Duration - very brief
retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
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4
Sensory Memory Store
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
 Divided into two
subtypes:
iconic memory visual information
echoic memory auditory information
 Visual or iconic
memory was
discovered by Sperling
in 1960
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5
Sperling’s Experiment
 Presented matrix of letters for
1/20 seconds
 Report as many letters as
possible
 Subjects recall only half of the
letters
 Was this because subjects
didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No
 How did Sperling know this?
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Sperling’s Experiment
 Sperling showed people can
see and recall ALL the letters
momentarily
 Sounded low, medium or high
tone immediately after matrix
disappeared
High
Medium
Low
tone signaled 1 row to
report
recall was almost perfect
 Memory for image fades after
1/3 seconds or so, making report
of entire display hard to do
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7
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
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Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
G
A
V
M K
U
X
L
S
F
Q
J
O
N
U
A
N
Z
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What Letters Do You See?
…..
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What Letters Do You See?
…..
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What Letters Do You See?
…..
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What Letters Do You See?
…..
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What Letters Do You See?
…..
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Sensory Memory Store
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
 Sensory memory forms
automatically, without
attention or
interpretation
 Attention is needed to
transfer information to
working memory
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18
Working Memory Store
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
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Working or
Short-term
Memory
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Working Memory Store
 Function - conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
 Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
 Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
 Code - often based on sound or speech even
with visual inputs
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
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Working or
Short-term
Memory
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Working Memory Store
 What happens if you need to keep
information in working memory longer than
30 seconds?
 To demonstrate, memorize the following
phone number (presented one digit at a
time)...
8 5 7 91 6 3
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21
Working Memory Store
 What is the number?
857-9163
The number lasted in your working memory
longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the
number?
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22
Maintenance Rehearsal
 Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
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Working or
Short-term
Memory
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Maintenance Rehearsal
 What happens if you can’t use maintenance
rehearsal?
 Memory decays quickly
 To demonstrate, again memorize a phone
number (presented one digit at a time)
BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000
by sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
6 2 8 50 9 4
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Working Memory Store
 What is the number?
628-5094
Without rehearsal, memory fades
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Peterson’s STM Task
 Test of memory for
3-letter nonsense
syllables
 Participants count
backwards for a few
seconds, then recall
 Without rehearsal,
memory fades
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Working Memory Model
 Baddeley (1992)
 3 interacting components
Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Central
Executive
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Phonological
Loop
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Working Memory Model
 Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial
info
 Phonological loop - holds verbal information
 Central executive - coordinates all activities of
working memory; brings new information into
working memory from sensory and long-term
memory
Visuospatial
Sketch pad
Central
Executive
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Phonological
Loop
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Long-Term Memory Store
 Once information passes from sensory to
working memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
© 1999 The Ohio State University & Worth Publishers.
29
Long-Term Memory Store
 Function - organizes and stores information
more passive form of storage than working
memory
 Unlimited capacity
 Duration - thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory Store
 Encoding - process that controls movement
from working to long-term memory store
 Retrieval - process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working
memory store
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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Summary
 Modal model of memory
three memory stores (sensory, working
and long-term memory)
control processes (attention, maintenance
rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern
movement of information within and
between stores
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Review of Long-Term Memory
 Organizes and stores information
 Capacity unlimited
 Thought by some to be permanent
 Encoding transfers info from STM to LTM
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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Elaboration
 Focus on meaning of information to encode it
into LTM
don’t simply repeat items over and over
tie item to other info in memory
also called elaborative rehearsal
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Ways to Use Elaboration
 Actively question new information
 Think about its implications
 Relate information to things you already
know
 Generate own examples of concepts
 Don’t highlight passage as you read
focus on the ideas in the text
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Which Level is More Effective?
 Elaboration leads to better recall than
shallow processing
Type of
Processing
Deep
0
Shallow -Acoustic
Shallow - Visual
10
20
30
40
50 60
70
80
Percent of words recalled
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90 100
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More Evidence for Elaboration
 Positive correlation between grades and use
of elaboration in 5th grade students
 In an experiment, college students assigned
to use elaboration received higher grades
than students not taught elaboration
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Organization
 Chunking
 Hierarchical organization
1492181219982 0 01
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Chunking
 Grouping small bits of information into larger
units of information
expands working memory load
 Which is easier to remember?
4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
 483 792 516
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Hierarchical Organization
 Related items clustered together to form categories
 Related categories clustered to form higher-order
categories
 Remember list items better if list presented in
categories
poorer recall if presented randomly
 Even if list items are random, people still organize info
in some logical pattern
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Hierarchical Organization
Mammals
Dogs
German
Shepherds
Cats
Scottish
Terriers
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Siamese
Calico
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Visualization
 Dual coding theory
 Key word method
 Method of loci
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Review of Long-Term Memory
 Retrieval transfers info from LTM to STM
 Forgetting - inability to retrieve previously
available information
 Why do people forget?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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Forgetting Theories
 Encoding failure
 Role of time
 Interference theories
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Forgetting as Encoding Failure
 Information never encoded into LTM
X
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Encoding Failure Demonstrations
 What letters accompany the number 5 on
your telephone?
 Where is the number 0 on your calculator?
 According to this theory, objects seen
frequently, but information is never encoded
into LTM
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Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
 Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures
 Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we
can’t retrieve it
X
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Role of Time : Decay Theory
 Memories fade away or
decay gradually if
unused
 Time plays critical role
 Ability to retrieve info
declines with time after
original encoding
 Problem: Many things
change with time.
Something else may
change and actually
cause forgetting:
Interference
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Interference Theories
 “Memories interfering with memories”
 Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
 Caused by one memory competing with or
replacing another memory
 Two types of interference
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Two Types of Interference
Types of interference
Retroactive
Interference
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Proactive
Interference
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Retroactive Interference
 When a NEW memory interferes with
remembering OLD information
 Example: When new phone number interferes
with ability to remember old phone number
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Retroactive Interference
 Example: Learning a new language interferes with
ability to remember old language
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Proactive Interference
 Opposite of retroactive
interference
 When an OLD memory
interferes with
remembering NEW
information
 Example: Memories of
where you parked your
car on campus the past
week interferes with
ability find car today
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Proactive Interference
 Example: Previously learned language interferes with
ability to remember newly learned language
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Review of Interference Theory
 Retroactive Interference
Learn A Learn B
Recall A, B interferes
 Proactive Interference
Learn A Learn B
Recall B, A
interferes
 Interference reflects competition between
responses.
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Review of Long-Term Memory
 Retrieval transfers info from LTM to STM
 How is information organized so that it may be
easily retrieved?
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
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56
Are Memories Organized?
 Demonstration:
recite the days of the week
recite the days of the week in alphabetical order
demonstrates that long-term memory is organized
not just a random jumble of information
 How are memories organized?
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Demonstration
 List of words will be read one at a time
 Recall as many words as possible
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Demonstration
 Look at your sheet
 Is there a pattern to your answers?
 Most list several fruits, then vehicles, then furniture
(or vice versa)
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Types of Mental Associations
 Association by contiguity
concepts are associated because they
occur together in a person’s previous
experience
 Association by similarity
concepts with shared properties are
associated
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Network Model
 Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts
linked by associations
Car
Truck
Bus
Fire
Engine
House
Fire
Ambulance
Red
Hot
Stove
Rose
Apple
Cherry
Pot
Pan
Violet
Flower
Pear
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Pie
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Network Models
 Links between concepts
common properties provide basis for mental link
 Shorter path between two concepts = stronger
association in memory
 Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of
activity to nearby concepts
 Also known as the spreading-activation model
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Retrieval Cue Theories
 Retrieval cue - a clue, prompt or hint that
can help memory retrieval
 Forgetting is the result of using improper
retrieval cues
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Encoding Specificity Principle
 Learn word list
generate ‘cue’ when
see word (jam - jelly)
at recall cues given
as retrieval aid
(jelly or traffic)
 Cues generated during
learning (jelly) more
effective during
retrieval than new cues
(traffic)
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Context-Dependent Memory
 Improved ability to remember if tested in the same
environment as the initial learning environment
better recall if tested in classroom where you
initially learned info than if moved to a new
classroom
if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs,
people will recall more info if tested in room with
the same smell compared to different smell or no
smell at all
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Context-Dependent Effects
 Compare words learned underwater vs on land
 Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater
 Words heard on land are best recalled on land
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Context Dependent Effects
 Time of day is also important
Learn at 3 pm
Perform better at 3 pm
Than 9 pm
12
12
12
9
3
6
9
3
6
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9
3
6
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State-Dependent Memory
 Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional
state is the same during testing and initial encoding
 Context vs State dependent
Context-dependent - external, environmental
factors
State-dependent - internal, physiological factors
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State-Dependent Effects
Mood or emotions also a factor
Bipolar depressives
information learned in manic state, recall more
if testing done during manic state
information learned in depressed state, recall
more if testing done during depressed state
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State Dependent Effects
If drink during
learning
May recall better
with drink
Than without
But not as well
as sober all the
way!
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Memory Construction
 Recall not an exact replica of original events
 Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various
sources
 Often fit memories into existing beliefs
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Schema Theories
 Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or
event
example: schema of a countryside may include
green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
 Scripts - type of schema
mental organization of events in time
example of a classroom script: come into class, sit
down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to
speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
 Schemas & scripts provide framework for new
information
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Eyewitness Testimony
 Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info
into existing schemas
 Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just once
then have to remember it
 Sometimes new information is distorted by
fitting into an existing schema
subsequent information (famous experiment by
Loftus)
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Loftus Experiment
 Subjects shown video of
an accident between
two cars
 Some subjects asked:
How fast were the cars
going when they
smashed into each
other?
 Others asked: How fast
were the cars going
when they hit each
other?
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Loftus’s Results
 Speed estimates
depended on how the
question was phrased
 Subjects memory for
broken glass also
depended on the
phrasing of the speed
question.
But this was a false
memory: there was
no broken glass
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Long-term Memory Systems
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
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Classical
Conditioning
Priming
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Explicit Memory
 Also known as declarative or conscious memory
 Properties:
memory consciously recalled or declared
Can use to directly respond to a question
 Two subtypes of explicit memory
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Subtypes of Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory
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Semantic Memory
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Episodic Memory
 Memory tied to your own personal experiences
 Examples:
what did you have for dinner?
do you like to eat caramel apples?
 Why are these explicit memories?
 Because you can actively declare your answers to these
questions
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Semantic Memory
 Memory not tied to personal events
 General facts and definitions about the world
 Examples:
who was George Washington?
what is a cloud?
what is the climate at the north pole?
 These are explicit memories because you can describe
what you know about them.
 Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT
include your personal experience
i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do
know about it.
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Implicit Memory
 Also known as nondeclarative memory
 Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not
enter consciousness
 Three subtypes
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Subtypes of Implicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
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Priming
82
Classical Conditioning
 Studied earlier
 Implicit because
it is automatically
retrieved
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Procedural Memory
 Memory that enables you to perform specific
learned skills or habitual responses
 Examples:
Riding a bike
How to speak grammatically
Tying your shoe laces
 Why are these procedural memories implicit?
Can’t readily describe their contents
try describing how to tie your shoes
They are automatically retrieved when
appropriate
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Priming
 Priming is influence of one memory on
another
 priming is implicit because it does not
depend on awareness and is automatic
 Here is a demonstration
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Priming Demonstration
 Unscramble the
following words:
O R E S
L T E P A
K T A L S
TSME
L O B S O M S
ELAF
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ROSE
PETAL
STALK
STEM
BLOSSOM
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Priming Demonstration
ELAF = LEAF
 Why not respond
FLEA?
 Because flower
parts were primed
(flower power)
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Priming
 Activation of one or more existing memories by a
stimulus
 Activation not a conscious decision
 BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions
 Two types of priming
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Two Types of Priming
Priming
Conceptual
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Perceptual
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Conceptual Priming
 The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences
your encoding or retrieval
 Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in
semantic memory
 Example: Flower power priming demonstration
 Does not depend on sense modality: pictures can
conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE
SHOWS
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Priming across modalities
 Look at the picture .
Then when the
instructor says a word,
write it down.
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Perceptual Priming
 Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus
based on its physical features
 Does not work across sense modalities
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Perceptual Priming
 Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
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Perceptual Priming
 What if you were shown
the following slide
earlier in the lecture?
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Perceptual Priming
 Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
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Evidence for Separate
Implicit/Explicit Systems
 Neurophysiological evidence
 Patient H.M.
life-threatening seizures originating in temporal
lobe
surgically removed portions of temporal lobe
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Temporal Lobe
 Includes:
hippocampus
amygdala
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Patient H.M.
 Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
 BUT, had other side effects as well
 Can remember explicit memories acquired before the
surgery
e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary
 Cannot form NEW explicit memories
e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30
minutes prior
cannot name new world leaders or performers
can recognize a picture of himself from before his
surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize
himself in a mirror
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Patient H.M.
 H.M. has severe explicit / declarative memory disorder
 H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit
memory tasks including priming, classical
conditioning, and learning motor skills
 This shows that explicit memory depends upon the
temporal lobes and implicit does not
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99
Patient H.M. Summary
 Temporal lobe damage led to deficits in explicit, but
not implicit memory
H.M. had both episodic and semantic memory
deficits
 Damage to the hippocampus alone produces episodic,
but not semantic memory deficits
 Why did H.M. show both types of explicit memory
deficits?
He had damage not only to hippocampus, but to
other structures as well
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Hippocampal Damage
 Deficits in forming new explicit
memories
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Copyright
Copyright 1999 by Worth Publishers, New York, NY and
by The Ohio State University. All rights reserved. No
part of the material protected by this copyright may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without written permission of the copyright
owners.
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