Transcript Chapter 9 - Memory Reading Map

Chapter 9 - Memory
Reading Map
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Thur, Jan 5
Fri, Jan 6
Mon, Jan 9
Tue, Jan 10
Wed, Jan 11
Thur, Jan 12
343 - 349
349 – 354
354 – 365
365 – 371
372 – 383 - take home quiz
Cards/Study Guide and quiz
due
Clive Wearing
• Clive Wearing
• - the man with no short
term memory
• 3 minute
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Vwigmktix2Y
• More on Clive Wearing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cli
ve_Wearing
Anterograde and Retrograde
Amnesia
• Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability
to create new memories after the event that
caused the amnesia, leading to a partial or
complete inability to recall the recent past,
while long-term memories from before the
event remain intact. This is in contrast to
retrograde amnesia, where memories created
prior to the event are lost. Both can occur
together in the same patient.
The Phenomenon of Memory
(344)
• Memory - the persistence of learning over
time through storage and retrieval of
information
Memory Loss and Memory Feats
(344)
• Some can’t lay down new
memories
• Some seem to not forget
anything
• Check out this clip on a
memory world record
holder
http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=SL6OWKarzGU&feature=r
elated
Memory Loss and Memory Feats
(344)
• Flashbulb
memories --- we
best remember
unique and/or
highly emotional
moments
Information Processing (345)
In forming memories
we
– Select
– Process
– Store
– Retrieve
information
In other words, we
– Encode (sensory
information into neural
impulses)
– Storage (retain the
information)
– Retrieve (later get it
back out)
Computer v Brain (345)
• Computer
– Faster
– serially
• Brain
– Slower
– parallel
Atkinson & Shiffron’s 3-Stage
Processing Model of Memory (345)
• 1. Record fleeting sensory memory - we
focus on certain stimuli only - selective
attention
• 2. Process it into our short-term memory
• Encode it for long-term memory and later
retrieval
Working Memory (346)
• Processing information in
our short term memory
• Here we attend to,
rehearse, manipulate
information
• We associate new
information with old
information
• If we don’t work new
information we lose it
Sleep and Memory (248)
• Information just
before sleep is not
remembered
• Information 1 hour
before sleep is well
remembered
• information during
sleep in not
remembered
Spacing Effect (348)
• Better retention if
rehearsal is spaced
• The longer the space
the better the retention
• Adaptive issue spaced stuff is more
likely to reoccur (ie
feeding a baby) so we
better remember it!
Serial Position Effect (349)
• If we are shown a
list of items we
will best
remember the
first and last
items the best
Verbal and Visual Component
(346)
• Baddeley (1992) - found that there is a
verbal and visual component to working
memory
• Parallel but limited
• So, we can’t have 2 conversations at once
(verbal) but we can talk (verbal) and drive
(visual) at the same time
Encoding (247)
2 Types
• Automatic Processing
– Unconscious encoding
– Things like space,
time, well-known
words
– Does not interfere with
our effortful processing
– Effortful processing
can become automatic
• Effortful Processing
– Information
remembered only with
effort and attention
Ebbinghaus Retention Curve (348)
• Ebbinghaus (1850 1909) studied memory
• In his experiment with
nonsense syllables he
discovered that the
more time spent
rehearsing on day 1
the less time needed
on day 2 to recall the
information
Next-in-Line Effect (347)
• We have the poorest
memory for what is
said by the person who
speaks just before we
have to speak.
• When we are “next”
we focus on ourself
rather than on what the
person beside us said
his name was!
3 Ways of Encoding Information
(349)
• 1. Encode meaning
• 2. Visualize the information
• 3. Mentally organize the information
Encoding Meaning (349)
• Think about the meaning of the information
• What is its context?
• We remember what we encode, not
necessarily what we heard
• Verbal information can be encoded visually,
acoustically (sound) or semantically
(meaning)
Ebbinghaus (349)
• Discovered that learning
meaningful material requires
1/10th of the effort of learning
meaningless material
30 second memory experiment
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Basketball
Music
Mustard
Coffee
Textbook
Vehicle
Snow
Pain
Stone
Success
Self-Reference Effect (349)
• You are more likely to remember
information that you can relate to
yourself
Encoding Imagery (351)
• Our earliest memories
are usually visually
encoded
• Re recall words best if
we can picture them
• We best recall vivid,
snapshot memories
better than mundane
memories
Rosy Retrospection (351)
• Our memories
are often better
than the actual
event
Mnemonic Devices (351)
• Memory aids
• Ex - Method of Loci associate a place with an
item to remember
• Ex - Acoustic Code - use
peg word (one) to
remember item (bun)
• Ex - Visual Code - stick
the carrot in the bun!!!!!!
Organizing Information for
Encoding (352)
• Hierarchies - categories/divisions
– Micky/Patty/Paul/Robby/Jason
• Chunking - easier to remember meaningful
units of information
– 359-1888 not 35 91 8 8 8 8
Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory (354)
G
P
L
F
K
W
C
Z
M
• George Sperling flashed 9
letters for 1/20th second.
People can recall about
half. When he flashed the
letters even quicker, but,
after the flash sounded 1
of 3 tones, people could
recall an entire row.
• This is fleeting
photographic memory.
Iconic and Echoic Memory (354)
• Fleeting photographic
memory
– of visuals is called
iconic memory - it last
for a few tenths of a
second
– Of sounds is called
echoic memory - it
lasts for 3 to 4 seconds.
Short Term Memory
(355)
• Unless we
meaningfully encode
or rehearse sensory
memory, it disappears
• Limited in duration (3
seconds) and capacity
(7 bits of info + or - 2)
Short Term Memory (355)
• Better for random
digits than letters
• Better for heard v.
seen information
• Capacity - about as
many words as you
can speak in 2 seconds
Long Term Memory (355)
• Capacity is limitless
• The average adult has about a billion bits of
information in memory and a storage capacity that
is probably a thousand to a million times greater.
• 4 minute clip on memory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TausqSK9p9k
Storing Memories in the Brain (356)
• Our memory is vast but not always exact.
Forgetting occurs as new experiences
interfere with our retrieval and as the
physical memory trace gradually decays.
• Memory Trace - is our memory’s physical
basis ------ what is it???
Memory Trace and the Cortex? (356)
• Lashley trained rats to
solve a maze and then cut
out portions of their
cortexes to see if it would
effect their memories of
the maze. No matter what
small section he removed,
the rats still remembered
at least part of the maze.
• SO ---- memories don’t
seem to reside in specific
spots of the cortex.
Memory Trace and the Brain’s
Electrical Activity? (356)
• Gerard (1953) tested
rat’s maze abilities
after he had stopped
their brain’s electrical
activity ---- the rats
still remembered
which way to turn to
get the food in the
maze
Long Term Memory and
Synaptic Changes (357)
• Given increased
activity in a particular
pathway, neural
interconnections
(synapse between the
axon and dendrites)
form and are
strengthened.
Memory and the Synapse (357)
• Kandel and Schwartz
(1982) found that snails
classically conditioned to
recoil when squirted had
changes in its synapses more serotonin - neuron
becomes more efficient at
transmitting signals.
Long Term Potentiation (357)
• Increased synaptic efficiency makes for
more efficient neural circuits. The sending
neuron needs less prompting to release its
neurotransmitter and receptor sites increase.
This prolonged strengthening of potential
neural firing, called long-term potentiation
(LTP) provides a neural basis for learning
and memory.
Long Term Potentiation (357)
• Image is of receptor sites
before and after long term
potentiation.
• Drugs can block or
enhance LTP
• After LTP has occurred, a
new electrical current (ie
electroconvulsive
treatment) won’t disrupt
old memories but it will
wipe out very recent
memories
Stress Hormones and Memory (358)
• Stress hormones boost memory. Stress hormones
make more glucose energy available to fuel brain
activity.
• The amygdala also boosts activity in the brain’s
memory-forming areas.
• Drugs that block stress hormones inhibit memory
• Weaker emotion means weaker memories.
• BUT, prolonged stress corrodes neural
connections and shrinks the hippocampus which is
used in forming memories.
• Sudden stress cal also block older memories - ie
going blank during a speech.
Implicit and Explicit Memory (358)
Implicit Memory
• AKA procedural
memory
• Retention independent
of conscious
recollection
• Unconscious capacity
for learning
• Explicit Memory
• Memory of facts and
experiences that one
can consciously know
and declare
• AKA declarative
memory
Types of Long-term Memories
Hippocampus (360)
• New explicit memories of names, images and events are
laid down via the hippocampus (and also frontal lobe) and
then are stored elsewhere in the brain
• Damage to hippocampus disrupts recent memory but not
long term memory
• Hippocampus is lateralized - one above each ear
• Damage to left hippocampus hurts remembering verbal
information but not visual design or location.
• Damage to the right hippocampus does the opposite
Cerebellum (260)
• Place of implicit memory and classically
conditioned responses
• Ex of the amnesia patient who won’t take
her doctor’s handshake after he poked her
the day before. She can’t remember his
name but also doesn’t take his hand.
Amygdala (360)
• Emotional memories
• Damaged amygdala prevents learning fear
conditioning.
Retrieval (361)
• Recall - a measure of
memory in which the
person must retrieve
information learned earlier
(ie fill in the blank test)
• Recall - the ability to
retrieve information not in
conscious awareness
• Recognition also
proves learning.
• Recognition is a
measure of memory
where the person only
has to identify items
previously learned (ie
MC test)
• Relearning time also
proves initial learning
Retrieval Cues (362)
• In recognition tests,
retrieval cues (ie
pictures) provide
reminders of
information we
couldn’t otherwise
recall
Priming (362)
• The process where we
identify a strand or
association that leads to a
memory
• AKA memory-less
memory - we are primed
to hear “hare” if we first
see a picture of a bunny
• Mnemonics give us
retrieval cues - one
rhymes with bun
Context Effect (363)
• We best recall it if tested where we learned
it
• Déjà vu - the feeling that I’ve experienced
this before. Cues from the current situation
may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an
earlier experience
Mood and Memory (364)
• Mood is a retrieval cue activating other memories
associated with that mood
• State-dependent memory - what we learn in one
state (ie happy) is more easily recalled when we
are again in that state.
• Depression and alcohol disrupt encoding and
storage - however, what I learn drunk or depressed
will be best remembered (albeit badly) in that
same state.
Mood-Congruent Memory (364)
• The tendency to recall
memories that match
your current mood
• Leads to things like
the cycle of depression
• Moods effect our
perceptions
Forgetting (365)
• Can be because of
failure to encode, store
or retrieve
7 Memory Failures (365)
• Forgetting
– Absent-minded, inattention to detail causing encoding
failure
– Transience - storage decay (unused information)
– Blocking - inaccessible stored information
• Distortion
– Misattribution - confusing the source of the information
– Suggestibility - misinformation
– Bias - belief-colored recollections
• Intrusion
– Persistence - unwanted memories
Encoding Failure (366)
• If we don’t encode, it doesn’t enter long-term
memory
• As we age we are slower to encode
• Older people recall less then young people but
have similar ability of recognition memory
• Encoding failure is also because of our selective
attention
• Some encoding is automatic and some requires
effort
Storage Failure (367)
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
• Ebbinghaus - much of
what we learn we
quickly forget, them
forgetting levels off
• Why?
– Fading of physical
memory trace
– Accumulation of other
learning disrupts
retrieval
Retrieval Failure (368)
• Memory is stored but
unretrievable
• Retrieval cues can
help
• Retrieval suffers with
age
Interference (368)
• Retroactive
– New learning disrupts
recall of older
information
– This is why you should
go to bed right after
you finish studying!
– Best to study one hour
before sleep
• Proactive
– Old learning disrupts
recall of newer
information
Positive Transfer (369)
• When old information
(latin) HELPS us learn
new information
(french)
Motivated Forgetting (370)
• Unknowingly revising your history
• Freud called this repression - we self-censor
painful information to protect our selfconcept and to minimize anxiety
• Freud said that repressed memories are
banished from our conscious BUT linger in
our unconscious and can be retrieved with
cues or with therapy.
Memory Construction (372)
• Misinformation Effect - we incorporate
misleading information into our memory of
an event
• As memory fades over time it is easier to
inject misinformation
• We will guess to fill in memory gaps - then
our guesses become our remembered reality
Loftus and Palmer Experiment
• People are shown a car
crash. If they asked
people how fast the
cars crashed into each
other (as opposed to
hit each other) , speed
was estimated higher
and later they
remember smashed
glass
Source Amnesia (374)
• Attributing memories to the wrong source
• AKA source misattribution
Discerning True v. False
Memories (375)
• Don’t rely on feelings because false
memories can feel very real
• Persistence also doesn’t prove T or F
memory
• In real memories there are better details.
False memories are usually more “gist”
PET Scan and Memory (375)
• Roediger and McDermott (1995) - had
subjects say candy, sugar, honey, taste.
Then showed them a list of words and asked
them to say whether they were the original
words. The hippocamus was the same
whether the guess was T or F. The left
temporal lobe only lit up with correctly
remembered words.
Child Eyewitness Recall (376)
• Leading questions
• suggestibility
Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse (377)
• Sustained stress can cause traumatic events
to be forgotten
• False memory in therapies using guided
imagery, hypnosis, dream analysis
• Problem of inferring childhood abuse from
adult symptoms
• Therapy can be a setting to “create”
memory
Improving Memory (381)
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PRTR (preview/read/think critically/review)
Over-learning boosts recall
Increase rehearsal time
Make material meaningful
Use mnemonics
Activate retrieval cues/context effect
Recall information quickly after learning it
Minimize interference (of sleep and of new
learning)
• Test yourself