Transcript Learning and Memory

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
CHAPTER 6:
Memory
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004
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§ How many cats did you see? = 12
How many pictures had cat(s) image =5
How many babies were in the pictures? =1
baby
How many dogs were in the pictures= 2
How many pictures did you see as a total?=
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An Information-Processing Model
The Sensory Register
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Autobiographical Memory
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A model of memory in which information must
pass through discrete stages via the processes of
attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004
§Sensory Memory
Records information from the senses for up to three
seconds
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Examples are Iconic (Visual) Memory and Echoic
(Auditory) Memory
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§Short-Term Memory
Holds about seven items for up to twenty seconds before
the material is forgotten or transferred to long-term
memory
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§Long-Term Memory
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§ Read the top row of digits, then look away and repeat
them back in order. Continue until a mistake is made.
The average capacity is seven items of information.
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§ Two students
practiced memory
span tasks for an
hour 3-4 days/week.
§ After six months,
digit span had
increased from 7 to
80 items.
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Process of grouping distinct bits of
information into larger wholes to increase
short-term memory capacity.
§ Take 5 seconds to memorize as much as
possible on the next slide.
§ Then, try to reproduce the arrangement of
pieces.
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§ Subjects memorized
nonsense syllables, (e.g.,
MJK, ZRW).
§ To prevent rehearsal, they
were given a distracter task
during the waiting period.
§ When a cue was given,
subjects tried to recall the
letters.
§ Short-term memories
vanish within twenty
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Term used to describe shortterm memory as an active
workspace where information
is accessible for current use.
§ Baddeley’s model of working
memory contains three
elements:
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A “central executive”
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Auditory working memory
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Visuo-spatial working memory
§ Material can enter conscious
Psychology,
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workspace from senses
or4/efrom
§ Serial Position Curve
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Indicates the tendency to
recall more items from the
beginning and end of a list
than from the middle.
§ Both groups of subjects
showed primacy effects,
good recall of first items on
list.
§ Only the no-delay group
showed recency effects,
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good recall for last items.
§ Can you name the
the Presidents of
your country?
§ Can you name
them in the correct
order?
§ Note that these
subjects exhibited
both primacy and
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§ Subjects were shown lists of
words and asked to use one
of three strategies
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Visual: Is the word printed in
capital letters?
Acoustic: Does the word rhyme
with _____?
Semantic: Does the word fit the
sentence _________?
§ The more thought involved
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(elaborative rehearsal),
the
§ Procedural Memory
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Stored long-term knowledge of learned
habits and skills.
Examples are how to drive, ride a bike, tie
one’s shoes, etc.
§ Declarative Memory
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Stored long-term knowledge of facts about
ourselves and the world.
Includes both semantic (non-personal) and
episodic (personal)
memories
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§ Semantic Network
A complex web of
semantic associations that
link items in memory such
that retrieving one item
triggers the retrieval of
others as well
Supported by research using
the lexical decision making
task
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§ Explicit Memory
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The types of memory elicited through the conscious
retrieval of recollections in response to direct
questions.
Conscious retention, direct tests, disrupted by
amnesia,
§ Implicit Memory
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A non-conscious recollection of a prior experience that
is revealed indirectly, by its effects on performance.
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Non-conscious
retention, indirect tests, intact with
§ Russian-English bilinguals were prompted
in English and in Russian to recall stories.
§ They recalled more Russian-experienced
events when interviewed in Russian and
more English-experienced events when
interviewed in English.
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§ How much English
vocabulary is
remembered over
time?
§ Most forgetting
occurs within the first
three years.
§ After that, memory
remains stable.
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§ One reason
people forget is
due to lack of
encoding.
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§ Proactive Interference
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The tendency for previously learned
material to disrupt the recall of new
information
§ Retroactive Interference
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The tendency for new information to
disrupt the memory of previously learned
material
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§ Study this picture for
30 seconds.
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List as many objects as you
can recall from the photograph
you just saw.
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§ Mnemonics (Anımsama Yönetmi)
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Memory aids designed to facilitate the recall of new
information.
§ Increase Practice Time
§ Increase the Depth of Processing
§ Hierarchical Organization
§ Verbal Mnemonics
§ Method of Loci
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§ Autobiographical Memory
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The recollections people
have of their own personal
experiences and
observations.
§ People’s memories are most
vivid for times of transition.
§ In college, these are
memories from the beginning
of the first year and end of
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Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
CHAPTER 5:
Learning
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Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
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The study of the behavior of animals in
their natural habitat.
§ Fixed Action Pattern
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A species-specific behavior that is built
into an animal’s nervous system and
triggered by a specific stimulus.
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§ A relatively permanent change in knowledge or
behavior that results from experience.
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Adaptation by learning is flexible.
Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning
and not by instinct.
The key to learning
isSaulassociation.
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§ Habituation
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The tendency of an
organism to become
familiar with a stimulus as
a result of repeated
exposure
It is the simplest form of
learning.
Note here that rats
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cat’s odor, and no cat, hid
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A type of learning in which an organism
comes to associate one stimulus with another
(also called Pavlovian conditioning).
§ Classical Conditioning involves learning that
one event predicts another.
§ This type of learning involves
• An unconditioned stimulus
• An unconditioned response
• A conditioned stimulus
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A stimulus (an event) that triggers an
unconditioned (involuntary) response.
• Examples: food, loud noises, painful
stimuli
• In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the
food.
§ An unconditioned response (UR)
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An unlearned response to an unconditioned
stimulus.
• Examples: salivation to food, jumping
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when hearing
aPrentice
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Hallnoise, moving away
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A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to
evoke a classically conditioned (learned)
response due to being presented shortly
before the US.
• In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the
bell.
§ A conditioned response (CR)
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A learned response to a classically
conditioned stimulus.
• In Pavlov’s
experiments,
salivation to the
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bell was the CR.
§ Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to
salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen
by Saul Kassin ©2004
attached to a Psychology,
slowly4/erotating
cylinder of paper.
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§ Before Stimuli Are Paired
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits
Unconditioned Response (UR)
• Meat powder leads to salivation
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Neutral stimulus elicits no particular
response
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• Bell leads
to orienting
response only, no
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§ Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the
Unconditioned Stimulus
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Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered
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This procedure is repeated several times
§ After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the
food
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When Bell rings, dog salivates
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The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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§ Acquisition
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Formation of a learned response to a stimulus
through presentation of an unconditioned
stimulus
§ Extinction
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Elimination of a learned response by removal of
the unconditioned stimulus
§ Spontaneous Recovery
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Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned
response after
a rest
period
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§ Stimulus Generalization
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The tendency to respond to a stimulus that
is similar to the conditioned stimulus
§ Discrimination
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In classical and operant conditioning, the
ability to distinguish between different
stimuli
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§ With repeated pairing, a
neutral stimulus can be
linked with a CS.
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The bell (CS) is paired
with a black square.
§ This neutral stimulus
becomes a CS.
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In the example, the
black square elicits
salivation.
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§ One CS was used to
§ An 11-month old boy –
named “Albert” – was
conditioned to fear a white
laboratory rat.
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Each time he reached for the
rat, Watson made a loud
clanging noise right behind
Albert.
§ Albert’s fear generalized to
anything white and furry.
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§ Cats were put into
puzzle boxes and the
time to escape
decreased over the
number of attempts.
§ Law of Effect
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Responses followed by
positive outcomes are
repeated, whereas those
followed by negative
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outcomes are not.
Operant Conditioning
The Principles of Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
The process by which organisms learn to
behave in ways that produce
reinforcement.
Reinforcement
Any stimulus that increases the likelihood
of a prior response.
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Operant Conditioning
The Principles of Reinforcement
Punishment
Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood
of a prior response.
Shaping
Using reinforcements to guide an animal
or person gradually toward a specific
behavior.
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Increases Behavior
Decreases Behavior
Present
Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement
(give money)
Positive Punishment
(give chores)
Remove
Stimulus
Negative Reinforcement
(take away chores)
Negative Punishment
(take away money)
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§ All salesclerks were
observed for a 20day baseline period.
§ Then, half were
given cash bonuses
for good
performance, half
were not.
§ The ones given cash
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bonuses improved
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§ Identify specific target behavior to change
§ Record baseline
§ Formulate a plan
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To increase a behavior, use
reinforcement
To extinguish behavior, avoid situations
where it occurs or remove
reinforcements
§ Implement the plan, revise as needed
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§ Maintain thePsychology,
change
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Observational Learning
Learning that takes place when one
observes and models the behavior of
others.
Studies of Modeling
Children and others model both antisocial and
prosocial behavior.
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§ Attention
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One must pay attention to a behavior and its
consequences.
§ Retention
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One must recall what was observed.
§ Reproduction
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Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce
the modeled behavior.
§ Motivation
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§ We have covered a number of process of
learning-acquisitions, shaping, extinction,
conditioned reinforcement, stimulus
generalization, punishment etc...
§ Write your paper, which one of them are
the best learning process for your learning?
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