Transcript Power Point Slides for Chapter 7

5th Edition
Psychology
Stephen F. Davis
Emporia State University
Joseph J. Palladino
University of Southern Indiana
PowerPoint Presentation by
Cynthia K. Shinabarger Reed
Tarrant County College
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Chapter 7
5th Edition
Memory
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Lewin’s “Life Space” and Memory
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Initial Studies
• Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted the
pioneering research on memory in the late
1800s and early 1900s.
• Ebbinghaus devised nonsense syllables,
which he believed had no meaning
attached to them, to study how
associations between stimuli are formed.
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Initial Studies
• Through the use of serial learning,
Ebbinghaus determined that much of what
we learn is forgotten very shortly after a
learning session.
• Serial learning is a learning procedure in
which material that has been learned must
be repeated in the order in which it was
presented; also known as ordered recall.
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Initial Studies
• Paired-associate learning is a learning
procedure in which items to be recalled
are learned in pairs.
• During recall, one member of the pair is
presented and the other is to be recalled.
• Free recall is a learning procedure in
which material that has been learned may
be repeated in any order.
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Initial Studies
• The serial position effect is the tendency
for items at the beginning and end of a list
to be learned better than items in the
middle.
• One of the most important findings of
Ebbinghaus’s research is the curve of
forgetting.
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Initial Studies
• Ebbinghaus found
that memory for
learned material is
best right after the
learning session.
• As time passes,
we forget more
and more.
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Initial Studies
• Two additional procedures for measuring
memory, the recognition test and the
relearning test, supplement the three
methods just described.
• In the recognition test, participants pick
out items to which they were previously
exposed from a longer list that also
contains unfamiliar items.
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Initial Studies
• A relearning test is a test of retention that
compares the time or trials required to learn
material a second time with the time or trials
required to learn the material the first time.
• A savings score is the difference between the
time or trials originally required to learn material
and the time or trials required to relearn the
material; also known as relearning score.
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Models of Memory
• Like the computer, researchers have characterized human memory as
an information processing system that has three separate stages: an
input or encoding stage, a storage stage, and a retrieval stage during
which an already stored memory is called into consciousness.
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Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory of
Memory
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Models of Memory
• The stages-of-memory model, also called the
traditional model, of memory proposes that
memories can be processed in different ways.
• There are three types of memory: sensory,
short-term, and long-term.
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Memory
• Retrieval and forgetting
– Retrieval
• Serial position effect
• Primacy effect
• Recency effect
• Encoding specificity principle
• Recall
• Recognition
– Forgetting
• Cue-dependent forgetting
• Interference theory
• Decay theory
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Characteristics of the information-processing approach
•Change mechanisms
Encoding
Automaticity
Strategy construction
Transfer
•Self-modification
Metacognition
•Thinking
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Models of Memory
• In the encoding stage, sensory information is
received and coded, and then transformed into
neural impulses that can be processed further or
stored for later use.
• The second stage of memory processing is
storage.
• Like the computer program, the encoded
information must be stored in the memory
system if we plan to retain it for any length of
time or use it more than once.
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Models of Memory
• Once a computer program has been
named and stored, we can “call it up” by
its name and use it again.
• Human memory works in much the same
way.
• When we recall or bring a memory into
consciousness, we have retrieved it.
• This recall process is known as memory
retrieval.
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Models of Memory
• People with eidetic imagery (the technical term
for photographic memory) say that they can look
at a written page, person, slide, or drawing and
then later mentally see that image.
• Eidetic imagery appears to be relatively rare.
• It seems, however, that once the image has
faded (such images last for up to 4 minutes), the
memory seems no better than the memories of
those who do not possess eidetic imagery.
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Models of Memory
• Sensory memory is a very brief (lasting
one-half to 1 second) but extensive
memory for sensory events.
• Short-term memory (STM) is more
limited in capacity than sensory memory
but lasts longer (10 to 20 seconds).
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Models of Memory
• The initial 10- to 20-second STM period
often leads to a second phase, working
memory, during which attention and
conscious effort are brought to bear on the
material at hand.
• Long-term memory (LTM) is the memory
stage that has a very large capacity and
the capability to store information relatively
permanently.
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Models of Memory
• The stages-of-memory model stresses
the importance of rehearsal or practice in
this transfer.
• Items that are rehearsed seem more likely
to be transferred than unrehearsed items.
• Memories may not be retrievable from
LTM because they have faded or because
of interference by other memories.
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Models of Memory
• We use maintenance rehearsal when we
want to save or maintain a memory for a
short period.
• Participants who are instructed to
remember a list use elaborative
rehearsal, which adds meaning to
material that we want to remember.
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Models of Memory
• Proactive interference occurs when old
material interferes with the retrieval of
material learned more recently.
• Retroactive interference occurs when
recently learned material interferes with
the retrieval of material learned earlier.
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Harry Harlow: Learning to Learn
The case for “practice makes perfect” not only in
learning initial tasks, but also in facilitating or
interfering later learning: TRANSFER OF
LEARNING
•Learning ‘sets’
•Trial-and-error learning
•Two-choice discrimination learning tasks
•
Several in a row demonstrate increased
success beyond chance (trial & error)
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Example: RED VS BLUE 2-CHOICE DISCRIMINATION TASK. Position randomized!
Trial
Right
Left
response
1
RED*
BLUE
+
2
BLUE*
RED
-
3
RED*
BLUE
+
4
BLUE*
RED
-
5
RED*
BLUE
+
6
RED*
BLUE
+
7
BLUE*
RED
-
8
RED
BLUE*
-
9
BLUE
RED*
+
10
BLUE
RED*
+
11
RED*
BLUE
+
12
BLUE*
RED
-
13
RED*
BLUE
+
14
BLUE
RED*
+
15
RED*
BLUE
+
16
RED
BLUE*
-
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BLUE
RED*
+
18
RED*
BLUE
+
19
BLUE
RED*
+
20
RED* © Prentice
BLUE
Copyright
Hall 2007 +
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Later learning task
Trial
Right
Left
response
1
Circle
Square*
-
2
Square
Circle*
+
3
Circle
Square*
-
4
Square
Circle*
+
5
Square
Circle*
+
6
Circle*
Square
+
7
Circle*
Square
+
8
stop
9
10
11
12
13
14
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Other Approaches To Memory
• The levels-of-processing model proposed by Fergus Craik and
Robert Lockhart represents a radical departure from the stages-ofmemory model.
• Craik and Lockhart proposed that there is only one type of memory
store and that its capacity is enormous, if not unlimited.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• A very shallow or simple level might
involve processing only the physical
characteristics of an object.
• At a deeper or more complex level of
processing, we consider additional
characteristics such as the fact that the
object has pages.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Recent research has demonstrated that
there is more than one type of long-term
memory.
• Four types of LTM have been identified:
procedural, semantic, episodic, and
priming (or implicit) memory.
• Each serves to store a different kind of
information.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Procedural memories are the memories
we use in making responses and
performing skilled actions.
• Our fund of general knowledge is stored in
semantic memory.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon is a
condition of being almost, but not quite, able to
remember something; used to investigate the
nature of semantic memory.
• Episodic memory is memory of one’s personal
experiences.
• Flashbulb memories are detailed memories of
situations that are very arousing, surprising, or
emotional.
• The study of flashbulb memories has provided
information about episodic memory.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Priming or implicit memory is unconscious
memory processing in which prior exposure to
stimulus items may aid subsequent learning.
• Priming appears to facilitate procedural and
semantic memory processes by improving our
ability to identify perceptual stimuli or objects we
encounter.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• A series of studies by S. Sternberg
suggested that retrieval from STM is not
instantaneous; we do have to scan our
STM, locate an item, and process it.
• The process of scanning items in STM to
retrieve a specific memory is rather
straightforward, but retrieval of long-term
memories is a different story.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Depending on the situation, various
processes may be involved.
• For example, we have to distinguish
between retrieval of memories in
recognition tasks and retrieval of memories
in recall tasks.
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Other Approaches To Memory
•Semantic
networks are
formed by related
concepts (called
nodes) that are
linked.
•The process of
activating a
network constitutes
the retrieval
process.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Not all of our stored memories are arranged in
semantic networks in which one concept triggers
a network of related items.
• There are numerous occasions when we are
required to use a grouping or cluster of
knowledge about a sequence of events or an
object.
• Such clusters of knowledge or typical ways of
thinking about things are called schemas.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• The encoding specificity hypothesis
states that the effectiveness of memory
retrieval is directly related to the similarity
of the cues present when the memory was
originally encoded to the cues present
when the memory is retrieved.
• In short, specific cues are encoded, and
these cues, or very similar ones, should be
present when retrieval is attempted.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• The possibility that eyewitness reports
may be inaccurate has stimulated a large
amount of research.
• One of the most startling findings concerns
what can happen to a memory once it has
been retrieved.
• Earlier we saw that when a memory is
retrieved from LTM, it appears to be
placed in STM for conscious processing.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• While this memory is in STM, however, it
is possible to add new information to it and
then reencode the modified memory.
• The next time you retrieve the new
memory, your report may not correspond
exactly to what actually happened
because the new memory now contains
the additional information.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Material learned in a particular
physiological state is recalled best in the
same physiological state, a phenomenon
known as state-dependent learning.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• One of the most dramatic and significant
controversies in recent years involves
reports of the sudden recall of repressed
memories of childhood sexual abuse.
• Psychotherapy is the most common
vehicle for the retrieval of memories of
childhood abuse (generally incest).
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Many therapists rely on memory-recovery
techniques that they believe help their
patients remember repressed memories of
abuse.
• The theory that memories can be
repressed is a cornerstone of the debate.
• Yet, after 70 years of looking, researchers
have not found evidence that the process
actually exists.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• It seems possible that we can lose contact
with memories for long periods of time;
however, repression is an overused
explanation of such memory failures.
• The more likely explanations are normal
forgetting, deliberate avoidance, and
infantile amnesia, or the inability to form
memories early in life.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• There is no evidence that people who
report memories of abuse are involved in
deliberate deception.
• Perhaps the major problem in evaluating
memories of childhood sexual abuse is
that there is no way to distinguish true
repressed memories from false ones.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Because false memories “occur in many
different contexts and can be quite
compelling,” several investigators view
such occurrences as memory illusions.
• Even though memory illusions appear to
operate similarly to other normal memory
processes, there are some differences
between them and true memories.
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Other Approaches To Memory
• Perhaps the most apparent difference
concerns the amount of detail that is
recalled: greater detail is recalled with true
memories.
• Daniel Schachter and his colleagues
reported data suggesting that the right
frontal lobe plays an important role in
creating memory illusions.
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Techniques for Improving Memory
• Mnemonic devices are procedures for
associating new information with
previously stored memories.
• If you create and use mental pictures or
images of the items you are studying, you
will remember them better.
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Techniques for Improving Memory
• The method of loci refers to the use of
familiar locations as cues to recall items
that have been associated with them.
• The pegword technique is the use of
familiar words or names as cues to recall
items that have been associated with
them.
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Techniques for Improving Memory
• Since the time of the first experiment on
grouping, psychologists have consistently
found that we tend to group or chunk items
when we recall them.
• Items that are not very meaningful or
relevant to the learner are not learned as
well or as easily as more meaningful or
relevant items.
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Techniques for Improving Memory
• Some people create special codes to help
them learn material that lacks relevance.
• They code the less relevant material in a
meaningful form and then remember the
coded items.
• Acronyms and acrostics are two popular
coding techniques.
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Techniques for Improving Memory
• An acronym is a word formed by the initial
letter(s) of the items to be remembered.
• An acrostic is a verse or saying (often
unusual or humorous) in which the first
letter(s) of each word stands for a bit of
information.
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The Physiological Basis of
Learning and Memory
• Physical trauma may result in a loss of
memory known as amnesia.
• Anterograde amnesia refers to the
inability to store new memories after a
traumatic event.
• Anterograde amnesia can result from
damage to the hippocampus.
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The Physiological Basis of
Learning and Memory
• Retrograde amnesia refers to a loss of
memories that were stored before a
traumatic event.
• Based on the notion that memories must
“set” or “consolidate” to be stored in LTM,
the consolidation hypothesis predicts
that memories that are interfered with
before they have consolidated will not be
stored.
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