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singer wounded business pathway destroy despair service murder marker kicking honest hatred killing rapist table book copy river fight hurt The Reliability of Memory THE IB SYLLABUS SAYS: With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable (i.e. To what extent is memory reliable?) The reliability of one cognitive process: Memory • How reliable is memory? The legal system uses eyewitness testimony (EWT) which relies on the accuracy of human memory to decide whether a person is guilty or not. • Normally, juries in courts of law take EWT very seriously, but recently, the use of DNA technology has demonstrated what some psychologists have claimed for years, eyewitnesses can be wrong. The reliability of one cognitive process: memory • Research has demonstrated that memory might not be as reliable as we think. • Memories may be influenced by other factors than what was recorded in the first place, due to the reconstructive nature of memory. • Definition: The term reconstructive memory refers to the brains active processing of information to make sense of the world • Repression may also occur and this further puts into question the reliability of memory. To what extent are recovered memories accurate? • Sigmund Freud (1915) was an influential psychodynamic psychologist. Using evidence gained from his case studies of people suffering from mental disorders, Freud was convinced that forgetting was caused by repression • According to Freud, people who experience anxiety provoking events may use defense mechanisms, such as repression, to protect their conscious self from knowing things that they cannot cope with. • They send dangerous memories to the unconscious, which means they deny that the ever happened. Are recovered memories accurate? • However, the memory will continue to haunt them in symbolic forms in their dreams until a therapist is able to retrieve the memory using specific techniques, such as dream analysis and hypnosis • Some researchers who are critics of Freud claim that these techniques can create false memories, which people consequently believe to be true. • But there is some research from cognitive psychology suggesting that repression does exist, such as research by Levinger & Clark (1961) (see below). • However, it is important to differentiate between the repression of everyday memories, and memories for severely traumatic events such as experiences of child abuse, or witnessing a murder Freud’s levels of consciousness Conscious The small amount of mental activity we know about (current thinking processes) Preconscious Things we could be aware of if we paid attention to them Unconscious Things we are unaware of and plays a major role in our behavior pain Repression conscious unconscious • Freudian idea that forgetting happens for a reason • Thoughts & memories that are painful are forced out of conscious mind to the unconscious mind Key Study: Levinger & Clark (1961) Aim: To examine whether repression can cause the forgetting of certain words Procedure: PPs shown two intermixed wordlists Some words had Negative emotional connotations and some were Neutral • They then compared recall for the two types of word – *What does the concept of repression suggest should happen? Findings & Conclusions: they found PPs had poorer recall of emotionally negative words (e.g. ‘fight’, ‘fear’), and concluded that this was because the words with negative emotional connotations were repressed Words used in Levinger & Clark’s study: copy pathway honest service river book singer marker business hatred fight rapist kicking destroy wounded killing hurt despair murder table • Evaluation: – Solid experimental methodology used – Research support: Klein (1972) found PPs had poorer recall for a wordlist when they had been insulted by the experimenter during learning, support the idea that repression of emotionally negative material occurs – Levinger & Clark’s experimental findings have problems: – Bradley and Baddely, (1990) replicated Levinger & Clark study and found recall for negative words higher after a delay – Klein’s (1972) PPs might have been distracted during learning or demotivated during recall (methodological flaws) – Also the serial position of the words may have influenced recall in Levinger & Clark’s study – This research has Low E.V. Repression: – In summary: Experimental evidence (Lavinger & Clark, 1962) and the case study evidence (Freud, 1915) is weak – Repression probably does happen, but not often; Freud’s suggestion that most forgetting is repression is not sustainable – evidence is lacking for repression as an important process in in everyday forgetting, however, it may play a role in forgetting traumatic experiences.... • Which ones did we recall more of (mean of words recalled for the class)? 1. Negative emotional words …… 2. Neutral words…… • Reflection: Based on Levinger & Clark’s study and Freud’s concept of repression, what can we conclude about the extent to which memory is reliable? …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………. Quick quiz: Repression 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What is repression? How did Freud gather evidence for his concept of repression? What is the structure of consciousness according to Freud? What two types of repression is it important to differentiate between? Give the aims procedures, findings and conclusions of Levinger & Clark’s (1961) study What were the findings of Klein’s (1972) study, and how does this support Levinger & Clark’s findings? What did Bradley and Baddely, (1990) find when they replicated Levinger & Clark’s (1961) experiment and included a delay? Make three evaluative points about Levinger and Clark’s (1961) study What does research into repression tell us about the reliability of memory? The recovery of false memories for traumatic events • The victims of child abuse may not want to remember the traumatic experience, but is it possible to totally forget these things? (remember repressed memories can resurface) • There is a controversy around the recovery of false memories. • Terr (1994) documented cases where people say they have retrieved false memories of childhood sexual abuse during therapy, and also witnessing traumatic events – such as the case of George Franklin (see video) • The False Memory Syndrome Foundation was founded in 1992 to provide support to families that had been shattered by accusations of childhood abuse by their children after their children had been through therapy. The recovery of false memories for traumatic events • The cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus does not deny that child abuse happens, but she has argued that some of the recovered memories may simply be created by misleading post event information during therapy. Her laboratory research has shown that it is possible to manipulate peoples memories (see her research below) • Loftus (2002) wrote an article on the case of the Washington Sniper, who killed a number of people. The police asked people to come forward with information on the murderer and many reported having seen a ‘white van’ in the vicinity of the shootings. • In fact, the snipers van was ‘dark green’. Loftus tried to find out where the myth of the ‘white van’ came from. She discovered that a bystander mentioned a white van in an interview. After this, other people reported that they has seen a white van. According to Loftus, a false memory had been create by the misleading post-event information. • Reflection: Based what you have read about the recovery of traumatic repressed memories, and the role of misleading post event information, to what extent is memory reliable? ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… Empirical Research into the reliability of memory • In his book remembering (1932) Bartlett argued that memory is reconstructive and that schemas influence recall. He also demonstrated the influence of culture on memory. • Bartlett’s (1932) classic study of reconstructive memory using the native American folk tale ‘The war of the Ghosts’. Native American Canoes • Reflection: Based on the findings and conclusions of Bartlett's (1932) research on reconstructive memory, to what extent is memory reliable? …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… Experiment • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GxwgH GCrrS4&feature=PlayList&p=973E9EEB3 37DAEE3&index=1 • Watch the clip and answer the question on the clip Loftus research on the reliability of eyewitness testimony Video: PSY_VIDEOS\memoryClips\EyeWT • One of the leading researchers into eyewitness testimony (EWT) is Elizabeth Loftus. • Loftus supports Bartlett’s idea of memory as reconstructive. • Loftus claims that the nature of questions can influence witnesses memory. • She suggests that Leading Questions – ‘a question phrased in a manner that tends to suggest the desired answer’ influences recall • This is misleading post (after) event information facilitate schema processing which may influence the accuracy of recall Loftus and Palmer (1974a) Laboratory experiment 1 into the effect of leading questions on reconstructive memory Aim: Title of study: To investigate the role of leading questions in recall “Reconstruction of Automobile Procedure: Destruction : • An independent measures design was used An Example of the Interaction Between • 45 students shown video clips of car accidents Language and Memory” Then asked questions: • Critical question was ‘About how fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?’ • ‘Hit’ replaced with either ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’ or ‘contacted’. IV: ………… ……………. Findings: Verb Mean estimate (mph) Smashed 40.8 Collided 39.3 Bumped 38.1 Hit 34.0 Contacted 31.8 DV: ………… ……………. What are the implications of these findings? Conclusions: The use of different verbs activates different schemas in memory, so that the participant hearing the word ‘smashed’; may actually imagine the accident as more severe than the participant hearing the word ‘contacted’. Loftus and Palmer (1974b) Laboratory experiment 2 to see whether misleading post event information can lead to the creation of false Aim: memories To see whether misleading post event information can lead to the creation of false memories Procedure: • An independent measures design was used • 150 students all shown a video clip of car accident • Split into groups of 50 • 1st group asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” • 2nd group asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” • 3rd group was the control group – they were not asked to estimate the speed of the accident Findings: • One week later they were asked a critical question, “Did you see any broken glass?” (there was no broken glass in the video clip) • The 2nd group who were initially asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”. On average gave higher speed estimates and that they recall seeing broken glass. IV: ………… Response ……………. Smashed Hit Control Yes 16 7 6 No 34 43 44 DV: ………… ……………. Still the highest – although most people said no to the question Overall Findings & Conclusions video# • Different words had an effect on the estimation of speed as well as the perception of the consequences of the accident. • Loftus and Palmer (1974) explained that ‘smashed’ provides participants with verbal information that activates schemas for a severe accident. • The higher rates of participants seeing broken glass is connected to this, the participant is more likely to think that there was broken glass involved when they were asked the leading question containing the word ‘smashed’ • Loftus’s research also indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using misleading post-event information (i.e. – the questions asked after the event, causes memory to be easily distorted leading to inaccurate recall) • This is also known as confabulation –confusion of true memories with false memories. Evaluation of the experiment: Strengths Limitations An evaluation of Loftus research into EWT Strengths • Loftus and her colleagues have made an important contribution to our understanding of the fallibility of EWT. It seems clear from the research that memory for event can be fundamentally altered in light of misleading post event information. This has had important implications for the way in which the police question witnesses, and also in the courtroom. • Loftus used experimental methodology, so that cause & effect can be observed, making the study easily replicable. Loftus & Palmer (1974b) also used a control condition in their study: the 3rd group were not asked about accident but asked about whether they saw broken glass or not, for reliability of results. The use of experiment 2 enabled Loftus to make sure that the results of the experiment were not merely due to demand characteristics. Limitations • There are problems with the use of closed questions, which means people have to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ – research suggests people recall information better when asked questions in a logical order – such as the ‘Cognitive Interview’ developed by Geiselman et al (1985) to be used by the police to get detailed accounts from eyewitnesses. – when this technique is used EWT can be much more accurate. • All the research participants were from the US, so the sample is culturally biased • The research also raises the question of how well people are able to estimate speed, and this may have influenced the results • Her research has also been criticized for its low E.V. & artificiality, in real life, events that might have to be recalled later in a court of law, often take place unexpectedly and in an atmosphere of tension. It is difficult to recreate such conditions in the laboratory for practical and ethical reasons, and it is quite possible that eyewitnesses remember real events differently from staged events Yullie and Cutshall (1986) criticism of Loftus’s research… • Yullie and Cutshall (1986) have criticized Loftus’s research for a lack of ecological validity. • Performing research on memory in the laboratory does not reflect how and when people remember in real life, they argue. • They used Loftus’s technique in interviewing people who had witnesses a real robbery and found that misleading questions did not seem to distort peoples memory. Instead, they found that the memory for details in this real life situation was quite amazing. • This was seen in particular in witnesses who had been close to the event. In fact, it seems that the wording of the question had no effect on recall, and those who were most distressed by the situation had the most accurate memories. • Furthermore, there is also research into ‘flashbulb memories’ which are particularly vivid, detailed and long lasting memories of the circumstances surrounding an event, such as 9/11 (see video ) • Reflection: Based on the findings and conclusions Loftus’s research on EWT, to what extent is memory reliable? …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… Test Yourself… 1. Which of the following was not a cue word in the experiment by Loftus and Palmer? a) Smashed b) Contacted c) Knocked d) Hit The correct answer is… c) Knocked Test Yourself… 2. The DV in the first experiment was… a) Estimate of speed b) The verb ‘smashed’ c) The question about broken glass d) The film The correct answer is… a) Estimate of Speed Test Yourself… 3. In Experiment 1, how many experimental conditions were there? a) 1 b) 3 c) 5 d) 7 The correct answer is… c) 5 Test Yourself… 4. In Experiment 2, how many experimental groups were there? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 The correct answer is… b) 2 Test Yourself… 5. In Experiment 2, participants were tested immediately and then asked to return for some more questions. How long afterwards was this? a) 1 day b) 3 days c) 1 week d) 2 weeks The correct answer is… c) 1 week Test Yourself… 6. In Experiment 2, which group saw the most broken glass? a) The ‘smashed’ group b) The ‘collided’ group c) The ‘hit’ group d) The control group The correct answer is… a) The ‘smashed’ group Test Yourself… 7. Which of the following is true? a) Experiment 1 and 2 were both repeated measures b) Experiment 1 and 2 were both independent measures c) Only Experiment 1 was repeated measures d) Only experiment 1 was independent measures The correct answer is… b) Experiment 1 and 2 were both independent measures Test Yourself… 8. The participants in this study were: a) Children b) Students c) Teachers d) Adults The correct answer is… b) Students Seminar on the reliability of memory • On Tuesday, in groups, you will lead a 10 to 15 minute seminar on your assigned topic extent to which memory is reliable • The main topic of your seminar is the • You will prepare questions for the discussion, but there is no requirement to produce a handout this time. • We will sit around in a circle, and you will share your knowledge of the section you have been assigned, and lead the discussion when it comes to your section • In order to take part, you have to have produced your own notes for the seminar on the whole packet, which is your ‘ticket’ to enter Seminar Rubric Creation • This is the rubric you created, and it will be used as a self assessment of the seminar Seminar Topics 1. Based on Levinger & Clark’s study and Freud’s concept of repression, what can we conclude about the extent to which memory is reliable? () 2. Based what you have read about the recovery of traumatic repressed memories, to what extent is memory reliable? ( 3. Based on the findings and conclusions of Bartlett's (1932) research on reconstructive memory, to what extent is memory reliable? () 4. Based on the findings and conclusions Loftus’s research on EWT, to what extent is memory reliable? () Things to consider… • Present the research • Evaluate the research, and discuss the research in relation to the essential question ’two what extent is memory reliable’ • NO NOTES are to be brought into the discussion, so you need to learn the packet, and the questions you will ask, particularly for your section. • • • • • • • • • • • Research… Freud (1915) Levinger & Clark (1961) Klein (1972) (Bradley and Baddely, 1990) Bartlett’s (1932) Loftus (2002) (Terr, 1994) Loftus & Palmer (1974a) Loftus & Palmer (1974b) Geiselman et al (1985) Yullie and Cutshall (1986) Reflection Exercise (HW/ Participation grade task) 1. Log into your school email, get the rubric and use the highlighter tool on the rubric for a self assessment and then send it to [email protected] *make sure your name appears in the document name* 2. In the body of the email: • Write a paragraph commenting on your personal performance, and for the group as a whole, highlight what went well, and what could be improved • Then write a few well structured paragraphs (Mini SAQ), from memory on the topic of: • ‘Discuss the reliability of one cognitive process’ How fast do you think the white SUV was going when it came into contact with the truck? How fast do you think the white SUV was going when it smashed into the truck? How fast do you think the white SUV was going when it came into contact with the truck? How fast do you think the white SUV was going when it smashed into the truck? • http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/_hotpotatoes/14022565711253738927.ht m • http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/_hotpotatoes/16794688201244238917.ht m • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo&feature=related (EWT 13 mins – good vid) • • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg&feature=channel (part 2) • • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtDt-THaH_o&feature=related (short version) • http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/videos/view/20015/ (video)