Cognitive Psychology
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Transcript Cognitive Psychology
What is Cognitive Psychology?
Focuses on processes going on in the mind.
The mind is a black box, often inaccessible
Examines how these processes work
Examines how these processes help structure our
understanding of reality
Examines what effect these processes have on human
behavior
Examines the role of mental processes in abnormal
behavior
Principles defining Cognitive level
of analysis
Principle 1: Human beings are information processors
and mental processes guide human behavior.
Principle 2: The mind can be studied scientifically
Principle 3 Cognitive processes are influenced by
social and cultural factors
State the principles of the CLA
Human beings are information processors and that
mental representations guide behaviour
Mental processes can and should be studied
scientifically by developing theories and by using a
variety of research methods
Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes
More about the principles
Purpose of the principles
These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused
research on specific areas of behaviour and cognition.
They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be
influenced by cognitive processes
Define cognition
Refers to a process that is based on one's mental
representations of the world, such as images, words and
concepts
People likewise have different experiences and therefore each
individual will have different mental representations of the
world.
Principle 1
Cognitive psychologists believe that mental
processes and stored representations of the world
determine behaviour and are central to human
experience.
Description
Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine – where they
believe that it is useful to model mental processes using an
information-processing approach whereby:
Information is examined from the outside world is received and
encoded
Storage and representation of this information to ourselves
Ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the
individual
And how we output information back into the world to be received
by others.
Computer Analogy
Brain hardware
Thoughts and representations software
Computer Analogy
Attempted to understand what occurs between input and
output.
They have addressed how the mind selects and codes
incoming information and represents knowledge to itself
while processing it and combining it with previously stored
information (organisation), and then how inferences are
made based upon this information and therefore how these
cognitions affect behaviour.
(OR) Both people and computers store information and
retrieve it when applicable to current tasks.
People, like computers acquire information from the environment
(input).
Both transform information, produce new information and then
both return the information back to the environment in the form of
behaviour (output).
Top Down/Bottom up processing
According to this approach, information input to the
mind comes via bottom-up processing – that is, from
the sensory system. This information is processed in
the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored
information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when
the information is processed there is some output in
the form of behaviour.
Seen via
This information processing approach/principle can be
seen in:
Schema theory – assumed to operate through top-down
processing; the role of schema (organized sets of associated
information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of
processing, but can also lead to distortions.
They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts
of information.
Principle 2: Mind Studied
Scientifically
A second principle the CLA states that the mind can be studied
scientifically by developing theories and by using a number of
scientific research methods.
Mental processes/representations can be studied empirically even if
they cannot be directly observed in the same way as behaviour.
Describe the principle
Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable
cognitive structures/processes, and inferences made.
These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate
research method of experimentation.
Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can
be studied scientifically.
Application of Principle 2
This information processing approach/principle can be seen:
Through memory processes such as the models of memory
demonstrated by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968).
Connection of study to principle
Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as
memory, can be scientifically studied.
Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the
multistore model.
And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive
process.
Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can
be studied scientifically and therefore making these cognitive
theories and models be applied to real-life scenarios.
Many other studies (coming)
Principle 3
Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.
An example of a cognitive process is schemas
Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, events
and actions
The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing information
The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society
and the culture that they are in.
Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different people are
exposed to different information.
Therefore individuals will have different schemas
Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on
culture
Examples include
Religion
Cultural tradition
Beliefs
Morals
Whereby these examples are acquired from important persons such as parents, peers,
teachers etc
I.E Bartlett
This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by
Bartlett (1932)
Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and
cultural factors affect cognitive processes as:
The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of
culture affected mental representations (schemas)/
This is demonstrated by the changing of unfamiliar words to
familiar terms
For example:
'Hunting seals' changed to 'fishing'
'Canoes' changed to 'boats'
Cognitive Schema
IMPORTANT SO DO NOT EVER FORGET THIS!!!
Cognitive Schema: A mental representation of
knowledge stored in the brain
A network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations
about particular aspects in the world.
In 5 minutes find examples of these…
More about Schemas
Knowledge that is stored in our memory is organized as a set
of schemas (or knowledge structures), which represent the
general knowledge about the world, people, events, objects,
actions and situations that has been acquired from past
experiences.
Types of schemas:
Scripts provide information about the sequence of events that occur
in particular contexts (e.g. going to a restaurant, visiting the dentist,
attending class).s
Self-schemas organise information we have about ourselves
(information stored in our memory about our strengths and
weaknesses and how we feel about them).
Social schemas (e.g. stereotypes) – represent information about
groups of people (e.g. Americans, Egyptians, women, accountants,
etc.).
What is Schema Theory??
Crucial!!!
Cognitive theory of processing and organizing
information.
Schema theory states that “as active processors of
information, humans integrate new information with
existing, stored information.”
The effects of Schema Theory on
our understanding of reality
Existing knowledge stored in our memory (what we already
know) and organized in the form of schemas will affect
information processing and behaviour in specific settings.
E.g. Information we already know affects the way we interpret new
information and events and how we store it in our memory.
It is not possible to see how knowledge is processed and
stored in the brain, but the concept of schema theory helps
psychologists understand and discuss what cannot be seen.
Schema theory can describe how specific knowledge is
organised and stored in memory so that it can be retrieved.
Evaluating Schema Theory
Schema theory will be evaluated, making an appraisal by
weighing up strengths and limitations with some
reference to studies on the effect of schema on memory.
Schema theory provides the theoretical basis for the
studies reported below.
Supporting Studies
Bartlett – “War of the Ghosts” (1932)
Anderson & Pichert (1978)
Brewer & Treyens – “picnic basket” (1981)
French & Richards (1933)
Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932)
– “War of the Ghost”
Aim: Bartlett aimed to determine how social and cultural factors influence
schemas and hence can lead to memory distortions.
Methods:
Participants used were of an English background.
Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.
Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated
reproduction, where they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various
retention intervals.
Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on
paper, which is then read by a second participant who reproduces the first
participant’s reproduction, and so on until it is reproduced by six or seven
different participants.
Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven
times from their own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur
between time intervals from 15 minutes to as long as several years.
Results
Both methods lead to similar results.
As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter
and there were more changes to the story.
For example, ‘hunting seals’ changed into ‘fishing’ and ‘canoes’ became
‘boats’.
These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into
what the English participants were culturally familiar with,
This makes the story more understandable according to the
participants’ experiences and cultural background (schemas).
He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various
ways making it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural
perspective (rationalization).
Bartlett 1932 “A War of Ghosts”
Participants read a story
Later asked to recall the story
Results: Distortion: Participants changed the story as they
tried to remember it. This happened in 3 main ways.
Assimilation: The story became more consistent with the
participants’ own cultural expectations - that is, details were
unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture
Leveling: The story also became shorter with each retelling as
participants omitted information which was seen as not
important.
Sharpening: Participants also tended to change the order of
the story in order to make sense of it using terms more
familiar to the culture of the participants. They also added
detail and/or emotions
Conclusion:
Memory is very inaccurate
It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing
schemas
Bartlett’s study helped to explain through the
understanding of schemas when people remember stories,
they typically omit (”leave out”) some details, and
introduce rationalisations and distortions, because they
reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of
their knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up
in and experiences in the form of schemas.
Evaluation:
Limitations:
Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as
accurate as possible in their reproduction
Experiment was not very controlled
instructions were not standardised (specific)
disregard for environmental setting of experiment
Connection of study to question
Bartlett's study shows how schema theory is useful for
understand how people categorise information,
interpret stories, and make inferences.
It also contributes to understanding of cognitive
distortions in memory.
Supporting Study 2: Anderson and
Pichert (1978)
Further support for the influence of schemas of
memory on cognition memory at encoding point was
reported by Anderson and Pichert (1978).
Aim: To investigate if schema processing
influences encoding and retrieval.
Method:
Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the other half was given the schema of a
potential house-buyer.
Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, previously rated by a group of people
based on their importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement) or a burglar
(10speed bike, colour TV).
Participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested.
After another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the switched schema. Participants
with burglar schema were given house-buyer schema and vice versa.
The other half of the participants kept the same schema.
All participants’ recalls were tested again.
Shorter Method:
Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or potential home buyer. After they had
recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given, they were shifted
to the alternative perspective (schema) and were asked to recall the story again.
Results:
Participants who changed schema recalled 7% more points on the second recall
test than the first.
There was also a 10% increase in the recall of points directly linked to the new
schema.
The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many ideas in the
second testing.
Research also showed that people encoded different information which was
irrelevant to their prevailing schema (those who had buyer schema at encoding
were able to recall burglar information when the schema was changed, and vice
versa).
This shows that our schemas of “knowledge,” etc. are not always correct,
because of external influences.
Summary: On the second recall, participants recalled more information that
was important only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on
the first recall.
Conclusion:
Schema processing has an influence at the encoding
and retrieval stage, as new schema influenced recall at
the retrieval stage.
Evaluation:
Strengths
Controlled laboratory experiment allowed researchers to determine
a cause-effect relationship on how schemas affect different memory
processes.
Limitations
Lacks ecological validity
Laboratory setting
Unrealistic task, which does not reflect something that the general
population would do
Connection of study to question
This study provides evidence to support schema theory affecting
the cognitive process of memory.
Strength of schema theory there is research evidence to support it.
Supporting Study 3:
Brewer and Treyens (1981) “picnic basket”
Introduce Study/Signpost:
The study
Aim:
To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would
affect memory (recall) of an office.
Methods:
Participants were taken into a university student office
and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another
room.
They were asked to write down as much as they could
remember from the office.
The Study
Results:
Participants recalled things of a “typical office”
according to their schema.
They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were
in the office.
Conclusions:
Participants' schema of an office influenced their
memory of it.
They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it
is not part of their “typical office” schema.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
Strict control over variables --> to determine cause &
effect relationship
Limitation:
Lacks ecological validity
Laboratory setting artificial environment
Task does not reflect daily activity
Connection of study to question
This study provides evidence to support how our
schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes,
in particular memory.
Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory.
Strength of schema theory – there is many types of
research evidence to support it.
Draw Me…..
Supporting Study 4: French and
Richards (1933)
Aim:
To investigate the schemata influence on memory retrieval.
Methods:
In the study there were three conditions:
Condition 1: Participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and
asked to draw from memory.
Condition 2: The same procedure, except the participants were told
beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock from
memory.
Condition 3: The clock was left in full view of the participants and just
had to draw it.
The clock used represented the number four with IIII, not the
conventional IV.
The study
Results:
In the first two conditions, the participants reverted to the conventional IV
notation, whereas in the third condition, the IIII notation, because of the
direct copy.
They found that subjects asked to draw from memory a clock that had Roman
numerals on its face typically represented the number four on the clock face as
“IV” rather than the correct “IIII,” whereas those merely asked to copy it
typically drew “IIII.”
Conclusions:
French and Richards explained this result in terms of schematic knowledge of
roman numerals affecting memory retrieval.
The findings supported the idea that subjects in the copy condition were more
likely than subjects in other conditions to draw the clock without invoking
schematic knowledge of Roman numerals.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
Strict control over variables to determine cause & effect
relationship
Limitation:
Lacks ecological validity
Laboratory setting artificial environment
Task does not reflect daily activity
Connection of study to question
This study provides evidence to support how our
schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes,
in particular memory.
Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory.
Strength of schema theory – there is many types of
research evidence to support it.
Summary of evaluation of schema
theory:
Define strengths of schema theory:
Supported by lots of research to suggest schemas affect
memory processes knowledge, both in a positive and
negative sense.
Through supporting studies, schema theory was
demonstrated in its usefulness for understanding how
memory is categorized, how inferences are made, how
stories are interpreted, memory distortions and social
cognition.
Strengths and weaknesses
continued
Define weaknesses of schema theory:
Not many studies/research evidence that evaluate and find
limitations of schema theory
Lacks explanation
It is not clear exactly
how schemas are initially acquired
how they influence cognitive processes
how people choose between relevant schemas when categorising
people
Cohen (1993) argued that:
The concept of a schema is too vague to be useful.
Schema theory does not show how schemas are required. It is not
clear which develops first, the schema to interpret the experiences or
vice versa.
Weaknesses continued
Schema theory explains how new information is
categorised according to existing knowledge.
But it does not account for completely new information
that cannot link with existing knowledge.
Therefore, it does not explain how new information is
organised in early life
E.g. language acquisition
Concluding Points
Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes and are used to organize our knowledge,
assist recall, guide our behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of
current experiences helps us understand how we organize our knowledge.
In conclusion, strengths of schema theory:
Provides an explanation for how knowledge is stored in the mind something that is
unobservable and remains unknown in psychology
There is much research that supports schema theory
But its limitations are that,
It is unclear exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between schemas
It does not account for new information without a link to existing schemas
Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema theory should be considered an important
theory that provides insight into information processing and behaviour.
It has contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes.
But the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome its limitations and
uncover its unclear aspects
links
http://www.thinkib.net/psychology/page/8195/bartlet
t-1932
Anderson Pichert burglar homeowner
https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1
8055/ctrstreadtechrepv01979i00119_opt.pdf?sequence=1
Evaluate:
two models or theories of one cognitive process
with reference to research studies
Memory
Memory is defined to be the mental process of
encoding, storing and retrieving information
Outline Memory Process
Memory undergoes a series of stages in order to store its
information.
Encoding process: incoming information is organized and
transformed so it can be entered into memory
Storage process: involves entering and maintaining
information in memory for a period of time
Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from
memory so it can be used
State the different models/theories
of memory
There are three main types of models of memory that
demonstrate how our memory processes work
including the:
Multistore Model (MSM)
Working Memory Model (WM)
Levels of Processing Model (LOP)
Multi-Store Memory Model
Describe the MSM
Proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
The multi-store model (MSM) consists of three memory
stores:
Sensory memory (SM)
Short-term memory (STM)
Long term memory (LTM) ... that is used for different tasks.
Sensory Memory
SM is...
A storage system that holds information in a relatively unprocessed
form for fractions of a second after the physical stimulus is no longer
available – stores sensory characteristics of a stimulus.
Plays a vital role in filtering out useless information, enabling us to
focus our attention on important details.
Duration: decays rapidly
Capacity: unlimited
Coding: information is picked up by our senses and stored in this form
Iconic: visual information enters the visual store
Echoic: auditory information is handled by the auditory sensory store
Haptic: information picked up via sense of touch
Short Term Memory
A limited-capacity memory system for storing
information for brief periods of time.
A & S (1968) see STM as a temporary storage depot for
incoming information after it receives and encodes
information from the sensory memory
Short Term Memory (Store) (STM/S):
Duration: 15-30 seconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)
Capacity: limited; 7 ± 2units (Miller, 1956)
Coding: Acoustically (Baddeley, 1966)
Information is lost unless it is rehearsed (via repetition)
LTM
LTM is...:
Holds a vast quantity of information, which can be
stored for long periods of time.
Information kept here is diverse and wide-ranging,
including all our personal memories, general knowledge
and beliefs about the world, plans for the future, and
where our knowledge about skills and expertise is
deposited.
LTM Continued
Long Term Memory (Store) (LTM/S):
Duration: Long-lasting (perhaps for a lifetime),
proposed that it could last for 48 years (Bahrick et al,
1975)
Capacity: Unlimited
Coding: Primarily semantic (Baddeley, 1966); but also
acoustic and visual
Information in the LTS can also be recalled via retrieval,
bringing the information back to the STS
Studies: Supporting Study 1
Studying properties of STM
Baddeley
A key researcher who investigated encoding, (which is
the first and crucial process of creating memories,
which allows the perceived item of interest to be
converted into a construct/concept that can stored
within the brain, and then recalled later from the STM
or LTM) is by Baddeley (1966).
The study
Aim:
To investigate encoding in the short term memory store
Methods: Participants were given lists of words that were:
acoustically similar (e.g. cat, mat...)
acoustically different (e.g. pen, cow...)
semantically similar (e.g. boat, ship...)
semantically different (e.g. book, tree...)
Their recall of the words was tested.
Results:
In STM, better recall of acoustically different than acoustically similar words
more errors with similarly sounding words than distinctly sounding words
Slightly better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words’
Conclusions:
In the STS, information is encoded acoustically because recall is affected by the sound of
words
Study 2 LTM Encoding (same guy)
Aim:
To investigate encoding in LTM
Method:
Participants were given the same lists of words in the previous experiment for STM
Their recall of the words was tested
Results:
In LTM, no difference in recall of acoustically different and acoustically similar words
Much better recall of semantically different words than semantically similar words
Conclusion:
In LTM, there is semantic encoding because recall is affected by meaning of words
Evaluation:
Strengths
Laboratory experiment
strict control over variables
able to determine a cause-effect relationship between
Weaknesses
Laboratory experiment
Lacks ecological validity
Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity
participants would do
How relevant??
Connection of study to question This study
supports the Multi-store model of memory as it shows
that:
STM and LTM have different encoding processes:
STM: acoustic encoding
LTM: semantic encoding
Thus STM & LTM are separate stores.
Supporting Study 3 (Case Study)
A study demonstrating memory processes between the STM and
LTM in regards to the MSM is by Sacks on Clive Wearing (2007).
History:
Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.
This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which
caused him memory impairment.
He suffers from:
anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a
particular incident
retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a
particular incident
Findings:
Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural
knowledge)
He could not transfer information from STM to LTM.
His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.
Conclusion:
STM & LTM are separate stores
STM has limited duration
Evaluation:
Strengths
Case study Realistic
In-depth information
Limitations
Cannot be generalised to the whole population
Relevance
This study supports the multi-store model because it shows that:
STM and LTM are separate stores
Wearing has STM intact but could not access LTM
STM has a limited duration
Wearing could only use STM and he experienced time elapses of
around 30 seconds. It also provides support for anterograde amnesia.
Does not support the multistore Model of memory because:
Wearing had significant damage to his declarative memory, but his
procedural memory was fully intact
This suggests that LTM is separated into declarative and procedural,
rather than a single, unitary store as the MSM assumes.
Study 4 (Case Study)
Another demonstrating memory processes between
the STM and LTM in regards to the MSM is by Shallice
and Warrington on KF (1974).
History:
KF was in a motorcycle accident which impaired his
memory
Study 4 contd
Findings:
He could transfer information from STM tLTM
He suffered problems with STM of different types of information
digit span was severely impaired
visual and auditory information (e.g. telephone ring) was
unaffected
Conclusion:
Findings suggest that:
STM & LTM are separate
STM is not required for LTM
There may be more than one STM store --> it is possible to suffer
impairment of verbal information without affecting auditory
information
Evaluation:
Strengths
Case study Realistic
In-depth information
Limitations
Cannot be generalised to the whole population
Relevance??
This study supports the idea that memory stores are not
unitary. KF suffered impairment of some types of STM
(verbal) but had others fully intact (auditory) STM store is
not unitary
Experiment time
Evaluation of the MSM Model
STRENGTHS (+)
Influential; early model that stimulated further research into memory
processes
Still accepted by most psychologists and is still widely used
Considerable evidence for demonstrating the existence of STM and LTM as
separate memory stores
Differing via duration, capacity and coding
Provides support for anterograde amnesia
Based on considerable evidence and evidence for the model is gained from a
variety of sources
e.g. studies of brain damaged individuals
Whereby these studies support the distinction between STS and LTS
Some patients with amnesia suffer damage tLTM but not STM, and vice versa
As demonstrated by Shallice & Warrington (1970); Milner (1966); Baddeley (1997)
Strengths contd
Demonstrates insight into different memory processes,
such as:
Demonstrates differences in encoding,
i.e. STM = STM = acoustic, LTM = semantic
Demonstrates differences in capacity,
i.e. STM = 7±2, LTM has no limits
Demonstrates differences in duration
i.e. STM = approx. 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959),
LTM = 48 years (Bahrick et al.,1975).
Demonstrates in ability to form declarative or procedural
memories by patients with brain damage, amnesia.
Limitations of MSM
There is emphasis on the amount of information taken into
memory
Focuses too much on the structure of memory systems
rather than providing an explanation on how it works
(functioning/ processing)
Reductionist*, oversimplifying memory processes (Eysneck
& Keane, 1995) – too simple
Mechanical in transfer from one store to another
Memory processes are more complex and flexible
*a form of explanation or approach to understanding complex things
by simplifying (or reducing) them to their most basic parts.
Assumes that stores are single and unitary
More Limitations
Unlikely that the diverse information in LTM is contained
in one, simple, unitary store in same form
Tulving (1972) suggests that LTM can be divided into
episodic, semantic and procedural components, stored
separately
Cohen & Squire (1980) suggest LTM is divided into 2:
Declarative memory: involves recollection of facts and events,
includes episodic and semantic memory.
Procedural memory: memories for how to do things.
Evidence from amnesia patients who have poor declarative
knowledge with no damage to procedural knowledge
Spiers et al. (2001)
Clive Wearing Baddeley, 1997
And more
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) focused almost exclusively on declarative knowledge and
did not account for procedural knowledge in their model.
Model suggests that rote rehearsal is the only way information transfers from STM tLTM
Too simple
Ignores any other factors such as effort and strategies people employ to remember things
Studies have questioned whether the more information is rehearsed, the more likely it is
to be transferred tLTM
Rehearsal may be what occurs in laboratory experiments but this lacks ecological validity
Most people rarely actively rehearse information in daily life, yet information is
constantly transferred into LTM (Eysenck and Keane, 1995)
Rehearsal is not as important as the MSM suggests
Increased rehearsal is no guarantee that information will be stored in LTM
And Finally
MSM under-emphasises interaction between stores
transfer of information is strictly sequential
information stays in LTM until retrieved
Does not consider the possibility that LTM interacts
and even directs other memory stores
Sensory what is important to pay attention
STM helps rehearsal or meaningful chunking
Memory Model 2: The Levels of
Processing Model
Another visual
LOP Model
Proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972)
LOP predicts that how deeply people process information
determines how well it is stored in memory
Deeper, meaningful processing creates stronger, longer-lasting
memory traces.
Shallow processing leads to weaker memory traces
It states that memory is a by-product of processing
information:
Maintenance rehearsal (repetition to hold information in STM) is
shallow processing and leads to short-term retention of information.
As opposed to argument of MSM
Elaboration rehearsal (meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking,
associations etc.) of information) leads to better recall.
LOP Contd
The three levels of processing
Structural (shallow) encode the physical
qualities/appearance
Phonological (intermediate) encode sound/auditory
Semantic (deep) encode meaning and associate it with
existing knowledge
Supporting Study 1: Hyde and
Jenkins (1973)
Aim:
...’investigating’ whether people could remember without intentionally trying to, and
whether deeper processing leads to better recall
Method:
Participants were presented with auditory lists of 24 words
Different groups of participants were asked to perform one of the following tasks
requiring different levels of processing
rating words for pleasantness
estimate frequency with which each word is used in the English language
detect occurrence of letters ‘e' and 'g' in any of the words
decide part of speech appropriate to each word (e.g. noun, adjective)
decide whether words fitted into a particular sentence frame
Half participants were told in advance that they would be asked to recall words
(intentional learning group)
Other half were not (incidental learning group)
contd
Results:
Minimal differences in the number of words correctly
recalled between the intentional and incidental
learning groups.
Recall was significantly better for words analysed
semantically (e.g. rated for pleasantness) than words
which had been rated more superficially (e.g.
detecting 'e' and 'g')
Conclusion:
Maintenance rehearsal is not necessary for learning.
Evaluation of the study
Strengths
Laboratory experiment
strict control over variables
able to determine a cause-effect relationship between
Weaknesses
Laboratory experiment
Lacks ecological validity
Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity
participants would do
Relevance
This study supports the LOP theory because it shows
that:
semantic processing is deeper than structural and
leads to better memory
intention is unnecessary for retention
supports Craik and Lockhart's belief that retention is a
by-product of processing
Supporting Study 2: Craik and
Tulving, 1975
A further study “investigating the effects of deep and shallow
processing on memory recall” is by Craik & Tulving (1975).
Aim:
“To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory
recall”
Method:
Participants presented with a series of 60 words about which
they had to answer one of three questions, requiring different
depths of processing.
Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which
the original words had been mixed.
They were asked to pick out the original words.
contd
Results:
Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed
compared to phonemically and visually processed.
Conclusion:
Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in
more accurate recall.
Evaluation:
Strengths
Laboratory experiment
strict control over variables
able to determine a cause-effect relationship between
Weaknesses
Laboratory experiment
Lacks ecological validity
Task is unrealistic; does not reflect daily activity participants would do
EVALUATION OF THE LOP MODEL:
STRENGTHS (+)
Overcomes criticisms of the Multistore Model as being
too simple methods of remembering. LOP was very
influential when first proposed.
Much research and evidence supporting the LOP
theory's idea that deep processing aids memory.
Strengths contd
It changed the direction of research and stimulated further
research into memory Accounts for why some things are
remembered better and for longer than others. LOP theory
is useful in daily life as it shows how elaboration, which
requires deeper processing, leads to better memory. It helps
to understand processes at learning stage. Improvements
on Multi-store model of memory:
Does not make strict distinction between STM & LTM
Does not regard LTM as simple storage unit, rather a complex
processing system
Encoding is not simple and straightforward
improvement on the MSM's account of transfer from STM to
LTM
Focuses on mental processes rather than structures
Weaknesses of LOP
Lacks ecological validity
all the evidence based on laboratory experiments LOP
theory focuses on the processes rather than structures
of memory.
Evidence (e.g. Clive Wearing, KF) supports memory
structures of STM and LTM stores proposed by MSM.
Problems with “Deep Processing”
Major limitation difficult to define “deep” processing
It is vague and cannot be observed, making it hard to measure
objectively
Circular definition deeply processed information will be
remembered better, but the measure of depth is how well
information is remembered.
LOP theory is descriptive rather than explanatory. Though
later research has attempted to explain how and why deep
processing is effective in aiding memory, the original theory
did not provide a detailed explanation of this (Eysenck and
Keane, 1995). Ordering of memory of LOP (semantic better
than phonological better than structural) is not
always supported by research.
More limitations
Several studies have shown that deeper processing does not
guarantee better memory. Participants usually spend more
time and effort on the tasks requiring deeper processing.
Type of processing, amount of effort and length of
processing time are often confounding
It is difficult to know that depth of processing alone
influences memory
Better memory may be due to more time or effort spent on
processing; not deeper processing. Like the MSM, LOP
theory is too simplistic; research indicates that memory is
more complex and varied than depth and elaboration.
Explain how biological factors may
affect one cognitive process.
Focus: Alzheimer’s disease.
If you were to get this question you
need to:
State what you are doing in the essay
I.e This essay will attempt to give a detailed account including
reasons or causes of how biological factors may affect the cognitive
process of memory in Alzheimer's disease (AD)
State interaction between cognition and biological factors
Human cognitive processes have a biological basis.
Define memory
Memory is the cognitive process whereby information is retained
and recalled from past experiences, in which memory processes are
used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information from
past information and knowledge.
Define Alzheimer's disease
AD is a serious and progressive degenerative brain disease, which
leads to the loss of neurons and often leading to dementia.
And…
Outline AD
The onset of symptoms is gradual but its progression is irreversible.
AD impairs the creation of new memories but procedural memory (how to die a bike or
play a musical instrument) is largely unaffected.
Episodic memory (memory of events and personal experiences) is the most severely
affected. Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of AD
AD also causes a steady decline in the semantic memory – general knowledge about the
world, concepts and language.
State biological factors affecting AD
Medial temporal lobe
Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine
Amyloid plaques
Neurofibrillary tangles
Genetic predisposition
Signpost
Therefore, to answer this question, the link between the biological causes and effects of
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) will be investigated in regards to the effect it has on a person’s
cognition of memory processing.
What to talk about in the
discussion
(how Alzheimer’s affects the brain and the cognitive
processes)
Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL) is crucial.
MTL
Biological Factor 1: Medial temporal lobe
Introduce the Medial temporal lobe (MTL)
One biological factor that may cause AD and then affect
memory is the medial temporal lobe (MTL).
The MTL has been investigated because it is known to
play a role in episodic memory and it is the first area to
show pathological changes in the brain.
Supporting Study 1: Schwindt and
Black (2009)
Aim:
To test the effect of episodic memory on AD.
Method:
They conducted a meta-analysis of fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD
patients, compared to normal & AD patients.
Results:
There was greater brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control
group.
Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation in the MTL
and increased activation in the prefrontal cortex.
There were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies.
Conclusion:
It was well-established that AD patients show decreased activation in the
MTL.
Connection of study to question
Connection of study to question
Schwindt and Black’s study supports the biological factor
of the MTL in causing AD and thus, impairment in
memory.
Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you
could link it with the next biological factor:
AD develops through a series of stages. First, the MTLs are
affected, in particular the hippocampus, then the parietal
lobes and other brain regions.
The symptoms of AD seem to be caused by the loss of brain
cells and the deterioration of neurons
Biological Factor 2:
Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of
acetylcholine hippocampus
This is particularly prevalent in the hippocampi area of
the brain.
The hippocampus has been found to affect memory
from cases of amnesia patients such as HM (Milner and
Scoville, 1957) and Clive Wearing (Baddeley, 1997).
Supporting Study 2: Mosconi
(2005)
Study that shows how biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a
role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Mosconi (2005).
Aim:
To test how the hippocampi region interacts with AD/To investigate
metabolism in the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain
activate responses in the body and dies.
Method:
Followed a sample of 52 normal participants for a period of 9 – 24 years
(longitudinal).
They used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic
activity in the hippocampus.
Results:
Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus was associated with later AD.
Connection of study to question
Mosconi’s study supports the role of the hippocampus in AD.
This can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus of normal
people contains high concentration of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987).
Low concentrations are found in people with AD.
This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas of the forebrain,
known to secrete acetylcholine.
Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it
with the next biological factor:
Autopsies reveal two characteristic abnormalities in these
acetylcholine-producing neurons.
These neurons in AD patients also show abnormal levels of amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
Biological Factor 3: Amyloid
plaques
AD is caused by deposits of amyloid-B protein which
accumulates in spaces between neurons and damages
the membranes of axons and dendrites (Lorenzo et al.,
2000)
The amyloid plaques are formed from the degenerating
axons and dendrites and contain a dense core of
amyloid-ß protein, in which the plaques accumulate in
the spaces between neurons.
Most AD patients accumulate amyloid plaques before
onset of AD (Selkoe, 1990).
Supporting Study 3: Murphy and
Levine (2010)
To investigate whether is a relationship between default activity
patterns in cortical regions in early adulthood and amyloid deposition
in elderly AD patients.
Method:
Eighteen older participants were enrolled from the longitudinal sample
of the Washington University Alzheimer’s Disease Research Centre
and screened to exclude neurological illness, psychoactive medications
and medical conditions that may produce cognitive impairment.
Results:
Presence of amyloid-B protein 42 in early AD starts a chain of events
that leads to AD.
Connection of study to question
Therefore, the results of this study support the biological factor of
amyloid-B protein in AD.
Biological Factor 4: Neurofibrillary
tangles
As well as amyloid plaques, another factor which plays a role in
the degrading of neurons that is significant for the onset of AD is
neurofibrillary tangles.
The tangles are microtubules found in the cell body and dendrites
of neurons, which forms abnormally and causes the microtubules to
tangle (neurofibrillary tangles).
When they tangle, the neuron loses its structure and no long has
support, thus shrivels up and dies.
The inhibition of the movement of neurotransmitters across the
synapse prevents electrical messages to be passed from one neuron
to the other; therefore, certain actions in the body are unable to be
activated.
It is caused by the accumulation of an abnormal form of tau protein
around the support structure of neurons that causes them to
collapse.
Biological Factor 5: Genetic
predisposition
Another important biological factor in causing AD is
our genetic predisposition to diseases such as AD.
Research has found that genes play a role in producing
amyloid-B protein. Research by...
Lott (1982): Demonstrate and early onset Alzheimer’s linked
to chromosome 21 (down’s syndrome)
Levy-Lahad eta al (1995): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found
on chromosome 1
Schellenberg et al (1992): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found
on chromosome 14
Ertekin-Taner et al (2000): Gene for later onset Alzheimer’s
found on chromosome 10
But genes do not provide a full
explanation of AD,
Which is demonstrated by:
St George-Hislop (2000): Half of all Alzheimer’s patients have
no relatives with the illness
Hendrie (2001): Yoruba people have Alzheimer’s genes, but
much lower rates of the illness.
Conclusion
Medial temporal lobe(Schwindt and Black, 2009)
Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of
acetylcholine (Mosconi, 2005)
Amyloid plaques (Murphy and Levine, 2010)
Neurofibrillary tangles
Genetic predisposition
... all play a role in the development of Alzheimer’s Disease,
affecting memory processing, which is a significant part of our
cognition.
Therefore it can be assumed that biological factors affect
memory in AD.
and
State its physiological basis
It can be seen that AD interacts directly with physiology
because it is caused by biological factors such as a genetic
predisposition to the disease; damage in brain; and the
formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles;
occurring mainly in the hippocampi region of the brain,
which contributes to the degradation of the neurons
developing the onset of AD.
State its cognitive basis
Therefore, the physiological effects of amnesia are what
influences/affects cognition, in regards to memory
processing.
Cognition and Emotion
The topic:
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion?
Introduce topic by explaining the cognitive level of
analysis
The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner
processes of the mind and how cognitive processes
guide behaviour.
As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been
investigated in terms of the biological and cognitive
influences.
Emotion
What is emotion?
Emotion can be defined as the body’s adaptive response to a particular
situation.
Examples
Ekman et al. (1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental emotions that
were consistent across cultures. This includes (FASSHD):
Fear
Anger
Surprise
Sadness
Happiness
Disgust
These primary set of emotions are viewed as universal that is, they are
expressed facially in the same way, and are recognized, by all members
of diverse cultures
Suggests that emotion is genetic (biological) rather than cognitive.
Emotion and its relation to
cognition
Emotions are sometimes dependent or are initiated through physiological and
or cognitive factors.
Define cognition
Cognition can be defined as the mental processes of acquiring and processing
knowledge and understanding through though, experiences and the senses
occurring within the mind
The mind cannot exist nor function independently without these processes.
Define physiology
Whereas physiology is the internal, biological mechanisms (hormones,
neurotransmitters, localization of brain function) of living organisms – which is
the way the organism functions.
State purpose of your essay
As such, this essay response will aim to consider the argument or concept of
how both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion and influence
how humans experience emotion. A conclusion will then be made regarding the
extent in which these factors influence emotion.
Important theories of Emotion
Le Doux Theory
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Schachter & Singer's cognitive labelling theory (Two-
Factor Theory)
Darwin's evolutionary theory
Lazarus' appraisal theory of emotion
Biological Factors of emotion
Biological psychologists view emotion as a primarily
somatic (bodily) process.
These somatic processes may be:
body arousal
hormones
facial expressions, associated to be with pleasant or
unpleasant mental states of mind
physiological changes, such as the arousal of the autonomic
nervous system and the endocrine system
brain activity
neurochemical processes
Cognitive factors of emotion
Cognitive psychologists assume that conscious and
unconscious mental processes can influence emotions.
Focus more on mental aspects of emotions and how
unconscious and conscious mental processes influence
emotional experiences and actions.
This guides cognitive and rational emotive therapies, which
assume that cognitions and emotions are interrelated, and
that negative cognitions will lead to negative emotions.
Those negative emotions may come out of people’s faulty
interpretations of experiences, and that is by raising awareness of,
challenging and changing those beliefs that may alter our mood.
The interaction between cognitive
and biological factors in emotion
Emotions can be initiated through physiological and
cognitive factors.
It is assumed that emotions consist of three
components:
Physiological changes (biological reactions)
Subjective feeling of the emotion (cognitions)
...which then leads to an associated behaviour and thus
emotion is expressed.
Thus, cognitive and biological factors interact to
produce an emotional response to an event.
Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between cognitive
and biological factors in emotion
Theory 1: Le Doux’s Model of
Emotion
A researcher, which demonstrates a biological and
cognitive interaction in emotion
Le Doux based his research on animals, and
investigated the brain’s emotional circuit.
Le Doux continued
Le Doux discovered that for fear responses, there are two
neurological pathways:
The short route: that goes from the sensory store in the
thalamus to the amygdala
The long route: traverses the neo-cortex and the hippocampus
before it results in a fear response.
Le Doux argues that there is an evolutionary advantage
of having two separate pathways for fear responses.
Le Doux continued
During times of danger:
The short route is effective, as it will lead to a quick, but often
inaccurate response.
The long route however, is slower, but will allow for a more
thorough evaluation of a situation, and a more appropriate
response.
Therefore, the amygdala receives input from the sensory
processing areas in the neo-cortex and thalamus and
projects to areas in the brainstem controlling the fight or
flight response. Diagram:
Diagram
Key Experiment 1: Le Doux Rat
Experiment (1996)
Study link to question:
A further study conducted by Le Doux to find out
where the brain stores emotional memory, which pairs
the tone and shock in memory demonstrating his
theory...
The Study
Aim:
To investigate the brain’s emotional circuit – effects of lesions on
fear conditioning
Method:
Made lesions in specific neural pathways in rats to determine the
functions of the damaged pathways and disrupt the conditioning
response.
The lesions were first made in the auditory context where the
brain processes sound.
And the auditory thalamus – which provides most auditory
inputs to the cortex.
The study showed
Findings:
Found that the brain structures of the thalamus and the
amygdala play different roles in the generation of emotion.
Lesion in the auditory cortex rats still learned to fear tone.
Lesion in the auditory thalamus eliminated the rats’
susceptibility (vulnerability) to fear conditioning.
Most of the cells in the thalamus transmit to the cortex
BUT some also transmit to the amygdala, a region of the brain
already implicated in various emotional behaviours.
Thus indicating that the pathways with lesions led to the
thalamus or amygdala, affected emotional responses
Implications
Conclusion:
It can be concluded that the biological factor of brain
damage to either of these areas would result in issues
in generating emotions.
Connection of study to question
This supports that biological factors DO interact in
emotion to a great extent.
http://www.columbia.edu/~lep1/rry/w3410/LeDoux/N
YT.Nov.96.html
Evaluating the study
How Le Doux’s theory supports interaction
between biological and cognitive factors in
emotion
This suggests that the amygdala plays a central part/role in
determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain.
Thus the connections between these structures allow the
amygdala to transform sensory information into emotional
signals and therefore control emotional responses.
Le Doux’s theory (of emotional circuits in the brain) supports
biological factors in emotion as it identifies that the amygdala
and surrounding brain processes play a central role in
determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain.
The theory also supports cognitive factors in emotion because
the situation is appraised though the long route.
Thus it cannot be said that biological factors alone interact with
emotion, but cognition also plays a role in creating and
controlling these emotional responses.
Theory 2: Schacter and Singer’s
Two-factor Theory (1962)
Two factors interact to determine specific emotions
Physiological arousal
Emotion interpretation and labelling of the physiological
arousal
Strength of the physiological arousal determines the
intensity of emotion
Interpretation of physiological arousal determines
which particular emotion is experienced
Relevance…
How the two-factor theory supports interaction between
biological and cognitive factors in emotion
Perception of stimulus may lead to bodily physiological
arousal
Physiological arousal is necessary for emotional experience,
but needs to be labelled or interpreted by cognitive appraisal
of the situation
If a state of unexplained bodily arousal is induced, people will
look around and try to explain the arousal in terms of their
environment
This cognitive appraisal results in labelling of the arousal as
an emotional experience.
Key Study 2: Schacter and Singer
(1962)
Aims:
To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion
arises from a combination of cognition and arousal),
using the hormone, adrenaline
Methods
184 college males
Divided into 4 groups
All groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its effects
on vision
Even though men were really receiving adrenaline and:
Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin)
Given no information on effects
Given false effects
Last group was given a placebo
4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups
Condition 1 euphoria
Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting room (with office equipment)
Condition 2 anger
Confederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became more and more angry
as the questions became more personal
Participants were observed for changes in emotion
Participants were then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion
Results:
Showed that participants that were given information on
the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in
emotion because they had an accurate explanation of their
emotion
But those who had been told no effect showed much higher
changes in emotion because they had no explanation for
their state of arousal, so they used cues of the confederate's
behaviour and labelled their emotions
These participants changed their behaviour according to
cognitive appraisal of their emotions, rather than specific
physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is
required.
Conclusion
Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a
process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of
physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to
construct a person's subjective experience of emotion
Connection of study to question
This study supports that a combination of
physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive
labelling (appraisal of the situation) can contribute to
changes in emotion
Introduce importance of first theory – Lazarus’ Theory
of Appraisal:
Cognitive researchers on emotion usually emphasize the
importance of cognitive appraisal.
Theory 3: Lazarus’ Theory of
Appraisal (1982; 1991)
The appraisal theory of emotion is based on the evaluation of
situations according to the significance they have for us,
therefore it has more of a cognitive basis
Suggests that cognition is essential.
This theory states that emotion is experienced when, in our
interaction with the environment, we assess our surroundings
as to whether it is beneficial or harmful for our well-being.
Appraisals are interpretations of situations and how they will affect
one’s well-being.
Appraisals are both conscious and unconscious; contribute to the
quality and intensity of an emotion.
The appraisal theory is based on
two concepts:
Primary appraisal – where the organism assesses the significance or
meaning of the event. Three components:
Motivational relevance – relevance to goals? (If positive, then there is
emotion)
Motivational congruence – favourable to goals? (Positive emotion when
yes, negative emotion when no)
Accountability – who is responsible for what is happening?
Secondary appraisal – when the organism appraises the consequence of
the event and decides on how to act. It also has three components:
Problem-focused coping – cope with a situation by changing it to make
it less threatening for an individual to cope
Emotion-focused coping – change the situation by how I feel about it
(e.g. reinterpreting).
Future expectancy – To what extent can I expect the situation will
change?
Supporting Experiment 2:
Speisman et al. (1964)
A supporting experiment which demonstrates how
cognitive appraisals are affected by bodily responses
(emotions) to stressful situations, which is illustrated
by Speisman et al. (1964).
Aim:
To demonstrate the influence of appraisal on emotional
experiences.
Method
Participants were shown a ‘stressful’ film about ‘unpleasant’ genital
surgery depicting Aboriginal boys have circumcision in the context of
puberty.
Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the
‘appraisal’ of the surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1
control:
Trauma condition – pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized
Denial – boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus deemphasizing the pain (presented the p’s as happy and deliberate)
Intellectualization – soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and
emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture
Silent – nothing
Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of
electrical conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic arousal and
heart rate.
Findings
Observations and self-reports showed that
participants reacted more ‘emotionally’ to the
soundtrack that was more traumatic.
Lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions.
The way participants appraised (act of assessing
someone or something) what they were seeing in the
film affected their physiological experience in terms of
emotion.
Evaluation of this study
Controlled lab setting
Rigorously controlled results
Methodological problems – It is possible that the
participants’ reactions were primarily affected by the
music, not that the music affected the appraisal of the
situation.
Conclusion of the study
Thus, according to appraisal theory, it can be
concluded that the music affected the appraisal of the
situation, which in turn affected the emotional
reaction to it.
...the cognitive factor of how we appraise certain
situations influences our emotional responses
Connection to the topic
This supports that cognitive factors DO interact in emotion
to a great extent.
State connection to cognitive interactions within emotion:
Thus, Lazarus’ theory of appraisal states that ‘we experience
emotions when interacting with our environment and
appraise good and bad to our well-being.
Lazarus suggests that the specific emotions experienced are
determined by the pattern of answers the individual gives
throughout the components of the primary and second
appraisal.
Conclusion of the section
The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive and biological factors contribute and
interact in emotion.
According to the information processing view of the brain (supported by Le Doux),
emotion is produced as cognitive and perceptual processing occurs in brain regions such
as the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and the pre-frontal lobe (biological factors)
According to the TFT, emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labelling
According to Lazarus’ theory of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition)
determines emotion
These theories have been supported through much research, and although there were a
few limitations within the studies, there have been no other theories or research that
opposes the idea that biological and cognitive factors influence emotion.
Therefore, all of these theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors interact
in emotion to a LARGE extent
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may
affect one cognitive process.
One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive
process of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM)
suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977).
Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by
enhancing it.
According tLe Doux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the
memory of events that occur during the aroused state;
however, even though these emotional memories are
emotions evoked by a particular event, the memories may not
always be correct. (MOVE TO EVALUATION)
Flashbulb Memory (FB)
Flashbulb Memories is a special kind of emotional
memory, which refers to vivid and detailed
(photographic-like) memories of highly emotional
events that appear to be recorded in the brain as
though with the help of a ‘camera’s flash.’
I.E. 9/11
What you were doing when you heard about the death
of a loved one
Car Accidents
FBM explained
Brown & Kulik (1977) also argued that the special
biological memory mechanism of FBM is triggered
when an individual usually encounters significant,
often unexpected and emotional events or experiences.
Events that have excessive levels of surprise and
emotion
Therefore creating a FBM of the immediate
experiences surrounding the highly emotional (happy)
experience or traumatic event
FBM Explained
FB memories also have unique features that
distinguish them from other memories they are more:
vivid, detailed, accurate, long-lasting, consistent and
easy to remember
This is in contrast to normal memories, which most
researchers are believed to be selective, unreliable and
malleable (easily changed or distorted).
Examples?
Main Study: Brown and Kulik
(1977)
Aims:
To investigate FBM and how it works (to support their theory).
Methods:
Interviewed 80 Americans
40 African Americans
40 Caucasian Americans
Had to answer questions about 10 events
9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of
well-known American personalities
The last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock
They were asked how much they rehearsed these events (overtly or covertly)
Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people
Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating
Brown and Kulik Contd.
Results:
They found that J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories
of all participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with vivid detail)
African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right leaders; e.g. the assassination of
Martin Luther King more than the Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM)
For the tenth event (which was self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events
like the death of a parent
Conclusions
This study carried out by Brown and Kulik (1977) supported the theories of flashbulb
memories whereby they :
Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information
Are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others) and covert rehearsal
(private)
Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent
and accurate
Require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores
information permanently in a unique memory system
Evaluation of Brown and Kulik
Relevance to the topic?
FBM can be explained in how emotion can
affect/influence memory by either enhancing it or
impairing it.
Enhanced memory leads to more vivid memories of the event
(FBM) Impairing memory leads to
Repression due to traumatic events
Repression is used to describe a certain type of memory,
usually of a traumatic type, when information cannot be
retrieved as a result of being locked out of our consciousness.
Mood dependent memory, emotion dependent
Study 2: Conway et al (1994) “UK and nonUK on Flashbulb Memory”
Aim:
To test the theory of Flashbulb Memory
Methods:
Participants were either UK or non-UK undergraduates
Was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British
Prime Minister,1990)
Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few
days after the event
They were asked again 11 months after the event
Results:
They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the
resignation of Margaret Thatcher
While there were fewer non-UK participants (29%) had
flashbulb memories of the event
Contd.
Conclusions:
Thus, Conway claimed that this event met the criteria for FBM for British
people as it was an unexpected and highly significant event pertaining to their
culture, therefore arousing deep emotions, influencing the special neural
mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the event.
Evaluation:
Strengths :
Ecologically Valid: real event
Interview: in depth qualitative data
Not focused (don't have specific questions Questionnaire)
Limitations
Distress in having to remember a tragic event and some methodology was not
controlled
Connection of study to question
Suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from normal
memories
However, they may only exist for events with personal significance
Evidence arguing against Flashbulb
Memory: Neisser and Harsch (1992)
One of the most significant research arguing the validity
and accuracy of FBM is by Neisser (1982), and later on by
Neisser and Harsch (1992).
Neisser questioned the idea of FBM’s, in which he
suggested that the memories are so vivid because the event
itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event.
According to Neisser, FBM may simply be a narrative
convention, governed by conventions of a storytelling
schema
Neisser also argued that FBM’s are subject to the same
types of inaccuracy and forgetting as any other memories.
Neisser and Harsh
Aim:
To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memory
Methods:
Participants were asked to report on the circumstances
of their learning about the challenger space disaster on
1986.
Neisser and Harsch investigated people’s memory
accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident
and then again two years later.
Neisser and Harsh
Results:
1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about
the disaster on television
Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V
Clearly, their memories of how they learned the news about the challenger
disaster changed over time
Assuming that participants' memories were more accurate one day after the
disaster, it can be concluded that their memories about how they had heard
about the news had deteriorated significantly during the subsequent two and a
half years.
Conclusions:
Connection of study to question
This thus suggests that FBM are not reliable (as influenced by post-event
information).
Neisser and Harsch claimed that such findings suggest that FBM's may just be
ordinary memories
Arguing Study 2: Wright (1993) “Hillsborough
Disaster and (5 months) recall
Aim:
To investigate the accuracy of FBM
Methods:
Interviewed people about the Hillsborough disaster
After 5 month he asked participants to recall what had happened at this event/disaster
Results:
After five months, memories were vague, and subject to systematic biases.
Found that memories were a blend of their own real experiences, and information that
had come after the event.
Conclusions:
Thus concluding that flashbulb memory is no different to any other type of memory
Shows that the memory that is “flashbulb” can decay over time, unlike as assumed
Connection of study to question
This study shows that FBM is no different than any other type of memory.
Arguing Study 3: McCloskey et al (1988)
Challenger Disaster after 9 months recall
Aim:
To test the accuracy of flashbulb memory
Methods:
Participants were interviewed and asked questions about the
explosion of the challenger a few days after 9 months
Also asked on personal memories
Results:
It was found that there were discrepancies over time between
what was recalled shortly after the accident and what was
remembered nine months later.
There were inaccuracies in the memories.
Conclusions:
FBM can be forgotten and thus cannot be considered as a special
memory, but are products of ordinary memory mechanisms.
Evaluation of these studies
Strengths:
The type of methodology used was interview thus
questions asked in the experiment were not focused
thus could vary from participant to participant
Weaknesses:
Ethics (forced to remember tragic events)
Not ecologically valid because the these events are
deemed not personal/emotional therefore not meeting
the criterion of FBMs.
Connection
Does not support this theory of flashbulb memory
Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid,
last longer and are more consistent and accurate
This study showed that flashbulb memories are not
different as they don't last as long as assumed by
Neisser.
Concluding thoughts on FB
Memory
In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can influence the
recall of memories.
However, it is hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is
very retrospective
Overall Strengths: The majority of research into flashbulb
memories is naturalistic. It all involves people’s
reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore
there is high in ecological validity.
Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can lack reliability as
they cannot really be replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see
how consistent the results are. Also, much of the research is
retrospective, and there is the issue that we cannot reliably
measure how accurate people’s initial memories are.
Discuss how social or cultural factors
affect one cognitive process
How to approach this question:
Define schemas
Expand on schema (explain what they are and how
relevant)
Explain briefly how schemas and memory interact
Define Memory
Relationship between cultural influences and memory
Discuss Studies
Relevant Studies
Bartlett: War of the ghosts
Brewer and Treyens: Picnic Basket
Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947)
“Schemas and constructive memory”
Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982)
Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974)
Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947)
“Schemas and constructive memory”
Aim:
To see if schemas affect recall.
Method:
“White” and “Black” Americans participated in the study.
Firstly the “White” Participants were shown a picture of an argument
between a well-dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven
white man holding a cut throat razor.
Serial reproduction: Participant asked to describe picture to another
white participant who in turn described it to someone else (similar to
“Chinese whispers”).
This method was repeated and the picture was shown to the “Black
Participants”
Contd.
Results:
White participants:
After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the
aggressor, holding the knife.
Black Participants:
Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There
were more correct observations from the black participants in relation to the
picture showed to them.
Conclusions:
This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we
expect (based on stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and
process into our memory.
White people were heavily influenced by the history of racism from the acts of
the olden-days America, whom discriminated against and placed heavy
prejudices on Black African American people. Thus, the history of how black
men were portrayed as aggressive and dangerous may have also influenced how
they interpreted the story, affecting their schemas.
contd
Evaluation: Limitations:
Lacks ecological validity
Artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience
Ethics
Experiment demonstrates a racist schema
When the participants found out they had a schema of a black person being aggressive
they might have been distressed because they might not have considered themselves
racist. They would have felt bad afterwards - didn't come out the same as when they went
in
Connection of study to question
This study relates to how schemas affect memory.
Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by participants' stereotypical
schemas.
However in terms of a cultural aspect/viewpoint, the participants’ backgrounds may have
affected how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge of and
history of their culture towards black people and hence influencing their schemas.
Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and
Wadell (1982)
Aim:
The aim was to determine whether non-western children would show a memory defect for
contextually organized spatial material. Mayan children had previously been shown to have poor
spatial memory
Methods:
They gave Guatemalan children a memory task that was meaningful in local terms; constructed a
diorama of a Mayan village located near a mountain and a lake, similar to the locale in which the
children lived.
Each child watched as a local experimenter selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 and placed
them in the diorama.
Objects included (the kind of things that would be found in a real town):
Cars
Animals
People
Furniture
Then the 20 objects were returned to the group of 60 others remaining on the table. After a few
minutes, the children were asked to reconstruct the full scene they had been shown.
This methodology was then repeated to children from the united states (to their counterparts)
contd
Results:
Under these conditions, the memory performance of the Mayan
children was slightly superior to that of their United States
counterparts.
Connection of study to question
This study supports that culture affects memory.
Guatemalan children could remember better than their US
counterparts when the task was meaningful in local terms.
Culture heavily impacts schema, thus memory recall. Through this
study, it shows that people can remember better or perform tasks
which are recognized as part of their culture, due to cultural
influences and experiences stored in their schemas.
People learn to remember in ways that are more relevant for their
every day life, thus social situations affect cognition
Supporting Study 5: Cole and
Scribner (1974)
A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic
knowledge (in terms of memory strategies in different cultures – USA
& Liberia) is by Cole and Scribner (1974).
They observed the effects of formal schooling/education (in relation to
culture) had on memory.
Methods:
Tested the memory ability of non-schooled children in the Kpelle tribe
in Liberia and compared them with US school children.
Children were expected to remember items on word lists that were
organized into different categories.
Test was repeated with the children several times.
contd
Results:
The Kpelle children did not improve their performance in free recall memory tests after
the age of 10 in the same way as US children; after 15 trials they only remembered 2 more
items.
Kpelle children who attended school had similar performance to US school children.
School children in US and Liberia used categorical recall; they appeared to have chunked
the items in to linked categories as they recalled them in groups such as utensils, clothes,
vegetables, tools.
When items were presented as part of a story the Kpelle children (non-schooled) had
equally good performance as the US children.
Children with formal schooling in America and Liberia used this mnemonic which
improved their memory of the items. Children without formal schooling however, did
not use the categories to aid their recall and subsequently did not remember as much as
children who had attended school.
Connection of study to question:
This study supports that culture affects memory.
The Kpelle children performed just as well as their US counterparts
in a culturally-familiar memory task, but not on a free recall task.
This is because the free-recall task that Cole and his colleagues
originally used to assess memory among Liberian tribal people has
no precise analogy in traditional Liberian cultures, so it is not
surprising that the corresponding way of remembering would not
be acquired.
Cognitive skills (memory) are dependent on the environment –
which is made up of education, social interaction, technology
and in this case, culture.
Therefore culture influences schemas, and thus our memory
ability/ability to recall and have advantageous effects if asked to
do a task associated with your culture.
Conclusion
As demonstrated in these five studies, cultural factors stored in our schemas affect
memory,
Therefore, human cognition is culturally dependent – in the way that cognitive abilities
are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live.
The implication of these studies is that although the ability to remember is a universal
intellectual requirement, specific forms of remembering are not universal, as factors such
as cultural aspects are different, in that not cultures have the same memory strategies.
As demonstrated by the studies, people learn to remember in ways that are relevant for
their everyday lives.
The studies established, in particular Bartlett’s work, showed that memory is, to a
significant extent, a construction; moreover, one that relies heavily on the schemas we
develop in our cultural settings.
And that the schemas we develop from our cultural backgrounds can influence the
cognitive process of memory.
Ethical Considerations in Cognitive
Psychology
In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure
participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and
that research conducted is ethically valid
Researchers should always conduct research in an
ethical manner and studies should always be critically
evaluated for ethical issues.
Ethical standards made by the American Psychology
Association (APA) that all research done in psychology
must abide by.
These Ethics Are:
Protection of participants
Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm
and distress
This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc.
Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information.
Consent
Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of
research before giving consent
Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about
research.
Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect
participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study
It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if
no harm is expected
Ethics contd.
A guardian or family member should also give consent to the
study if the participants are
Children under 18 years of age
Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and
aims of the study
Right to withdraw
Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw
their participation and data at any time in the study (even at
the end) without penalty.
Confidentiality
Data collected in a study should remain confidential and
anonymous to protect participants from possible
consequences that may result from their data
And more ethics
Deception
Deception should be avoided
But slight deception is considered acceptable if:
Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims
of the study
The research has potential significant contribution
It is unavoidable
The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including
upon being informed of the deception
If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained
Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity
Debriefing
Any deception must be revealed and justified
Participants should leave the study without undue stress
Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon
as possible
Cases with questionable ethics
“Genie” Curtiss
Background:
Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure
to language early in life
She had no apparent language skills when she was
discovered at age 13.
Aim:
To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a
sensitive learning period (before puberty) during which
language must be acquired to develop normally.
More about Genie and Ethics
Method:
Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise.
They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring
environment for Genie.
Ethical issues of this study:
There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
Participant Protection
Genie was protected from harm during the study
But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home
Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment
and carers and the leaving of the researchers
And more,,,
Consent
Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language
restrictions and mental state
But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the
study
Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent
Withdrawal
Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to
language restrictions and mental state
Confidentiality
Her identity was kept anonymous as 'Genie' is not her real name
Although her real name was not revealed, her case was exposed to the world of
psychology
And a little more
Debriefing
Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study
She ended up living in an adult foster home, still requiring treatment as she is
still language impaired.
However, since she did not know that she was being studied, she would not
desire a debriefing.
Inappropriate behaviour of researchers
Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie
This was inappropriate for scientific research
Leads to the questioning of objectivity and their aims for studying Genie
Clive Wearing (Sacks 2007)
Background:
Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.
This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused
memory impairment.
He suffers:
anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular
incident
retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular
incident.
Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural
knowledge)
He could not transfer information from STM tLTM.
His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.
Ethical issues of this study
Consent
Wearing did not give consent to being in a study
His wife gave consent for him to be studied
But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to
his short memory span
Confidentiality
Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality
Wearing’s real name was revealed
His case was revealed to the world of psychology
But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his
confidentiality was violated
Withdraw
Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not
express any desires to withdraw
Wearing Contd
Debriefing
Wearing was not debriefed
But because of his short memory span, he would not
know he is in a study and would not desire a debriefing
Animal research
APA Guidelines for Animal Research
Tries to avoid harm to animals
But harm may still be inflicted on animals,
The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of
humans or other animals
If it is unavoidable
If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will
cause pain to animals
Animal welfare should be monitored
Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research
Causes long term/serious harm
Affects their ability to live
Normally
Pain-free
Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper
(1970) “Kitten carrousel”
Aim:
To investigate the effect of exposure to spatially periodic patterns on the brains of cats
Ethics:
Participant protection
6 male cats were placed in a drum with only vertical or only horizontal lines
Kittens were made to wear a cuff around the neck to prevent them seeing lines of any
other orientation
Cats may have experienced distress from being forced to live in a confined, unnatural
environment and wearing a cuff
The cats' primary visual cortex would fire in response to the lines presented in the
orientation they were exposed to and not lines which were perpendicular
There was physical degeneration in the visual cortex as a result of the lines the cats were
exposed to
Researchers caused permanent physical damage to the cats' visual cortex
Animal ethics
Researchers had done permanent damage to the cats that may have affected
their ability to live a normal, pain-free live
But the cats were not euthanized
The welfare of cats was not monitored
Consent
Cats could not be fully informed about the study
Cats could not give consent
But cats would not be able to understand if they were being studied
Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent
Withdrawal
Cats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study
Conclusion
Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes,
Protection of participants from harm
Consent
Withdrawal
Confidentiality
Deception
Debriefing
But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception
Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations
Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia
Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
The use of technology in investigating cognitive
processes.
PET: Positron Emission Topography
MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
EEG: Electroencephalogram
CAT: Computerised Axial Tomography
Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages and
are appropriate in varying situations
Why Brain imaging technologies
are used at the CLA
Brain imaging technologies are methods used in
psychology to examine the human brain.
Provides an opportunity to study the active brain
Allows researchers to see where specific brain processes
take place
Predominantly used to define brain differences in groups
while they perform cognitive tasks
Enables researchers to study localisation of function in a
living human brain
Relevant Processes to discuss when
discussing the use of tech.
Memory
Language
Relevant Tech to discuss
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Memory and the use of MRI
Describe the MRI brain imaging technology
This technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce 3D computer-generated images.
MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects
and clothing where they lie within an MRI machine.
It can distinguish among different types of soft tissue
and allows researchers to see structures within the
brain.
Pros and Cons
Supporting Study: Maguire et al.
(2000)
An example of a study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate the cognitive
process of memory is a study conducted by Maguire et al. (2000).
Aim:
Maguire hypothesized that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a
different hippocampi structure in their brains compared to ‘normal’ people.
Methods:
This was based on the knowledge that London taxi drivers must do a two-year
training course where they end up being able to find their way around the city
without a map.
MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were
compared to already existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive
taxis.
And so…
Results:
Taxi drivers’ left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi
drivers.
Some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi drivers.
Conclusions:
Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the
hippocampi of taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to
remember roads; the neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most.
Connection of study to question
By using an MRI, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a
correlation between the hippocampi (biological factor) and memory skills (cognitive
process).
Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not
be able to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan
HM will work
Connection of study to question
By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were
able to investigate the cognitive process of memory
and make a correlation between certain brain areas
(biological factor) and memory (cognitive process).
MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain
to determine the extent of brain damage
The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using
other technologies such as EEGs or CTs.
Language and Brain Imaging
Technology 2: PET Scans
Describe PET brain imaging technology
PET scans require patients to be injected with a
radioactive glucose tracer which shows the areas where
glucose is absorbed in the active brain.
More glucose metabolism means more brain activity.
PET scans show a coloured visual display of brain
activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed
Red indicates areas with the most activity
Blue indicates areas with the least activity
Pros and Cons
Supporting Study 3: Tierney et al
(2001)
Aim:
To evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early
childhood brain damage
Background:
37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a
normal speech study
It was discovered that he had a lesion in his left frontal lobe
Probably as a result of encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks
He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences
Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age.
Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability
to speak despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so.
And so…
Methods:
Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language
PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or signs
Results:
MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech and
sign language
Conclusion:
Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere as
an adaptation following his early brain damage
Connection of study to outcome
Tierney utilised PET scans to investigate the cognitive processes of language and observe the areas of
the brain (biological factor) that activated while MA produced language (cognitive process).
The ongoing activity in the brain would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as EEGs or
MRIs.
Conclusion
What is the significance of using brain scans? Answer the
question
In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very useful in
investigating cognitive processes.
Useful in different situations.
All these methods have their own advantages and
disadvantages, primarily involving invasiveness and levels of
radioactivity.
However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the
relationship between cognitive processes and behaviour.
It is important to note that different brain scans are used
depending on the individual, the cause of the problem and or
the cognitive process being investigated.