Transcript (and bacteria).

The single sentence definition of biotechnology:
“the application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and
models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production of knowledge, goods and
services.”
OECD list-based definition of biotechnology techniques:
DNA/RNA: Genomics, pharmacogenomics, gene probes, genetic engineering, DNA/RNA
sequencing/synthesis/amplification, gene expression profiling, and use of antisense technology.
Proteins and other molecules: Sequencing/synthesis/engineering of proteins and peptides
(including large molecule hormones); improved delivery methods for large molecule drugs;
proteomics, protein isolation and purification, signaling, identification of cell receptors.
Cell and tissue culture and engineering: Cell/tissue culture, tissue engineering (including
tissue scaffolds and biomedical engineering), cellular fusion, vaccine/immune stimulants,
embryo manipulation.
Process biotechnology techniques: Fermentation using bioreactors, bioprocessing,
bioleaching, biopulping, biobleaching, biodesulphurisation, bioremediation, biofiltration and
phytoremediation.
Gene and RNA vectors: Gene therapy, viral vectors.
Bioinformatics: Construction of databases on genomes, protein sequences; modelling complex
biological processes, including systems biology.
Nanobiotechnology: Applies the tools and processes of nano/microfabrication to build devices
for studying biosystems and applications in drug delivery, diagnostics etc.
Source: OECD (2005), A Framework for Biotechnology Statistics, OECD, Paris.
See also this link: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/4/23/42833898.pdf
Biotechnology is mostly about cells or parts of them, but entire organisms
may also in some cases be seen as parts of biotechnology. In either case it is
typical that one looks at cells or organisms from a chemical point of view,
trying to explain observations in molecular terms. This often leads into an
enormous complexity, which has resulted in a focus on multidiciplinarity
(biology, chemistry, bioinformatics, physics, mathematics)
Biotecnology originates from classical biology, which mainly has been a
descriptive field, but now there is room for everyone!
Tree of life
PROKARYOTES
Bacteria
EUKARYOTES
Archaea
Entamoebae Slime
molds
Green nonsulfur
bacteria
Mitochondrion
Proteobacteria
Chloroplast
Flavobacteria
Cyanobacteria
Grampositive
bacteria
Eukarya
Euryarchaeota
Methanosarcina
MethanoExtreme
Crenarchaeota bacterium
halophiles
Thermoproteus
Methanococcus
Pyrodictium
Thermoplasma
Animals
Fungi
Plants
Ciliates
Thermococcus
Marine
Crenarchaeota
Flagellates
Pyrolobus Methanopyrus
Trichomonads
Thermotoga
Thermodesulfobacterium
Microsporidia
Aquifex
Universal
ancestor
Diplomonads
(Giardia)
Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasmid
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Prokaryote
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm
Eukaryote
Golgi
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
The structures of animal and
plant cells, which both are
eukaryotic organisms
A short outline of eukaryotic organelle functions:
Cell wall: A stiff structure outside of the cytoplasmic membrane in plant cells (and bacteria). Ensures
a specific form of the cell and also contributes to stiffness of tissues (like wood).
Centriole: An organelle involved in separation of chromosome copies in mitosis and other ”motor”
activities. Contains microtubules (fibrous motor protein complexes), also found elsewhere in cells.
Chloroplast: An organelle that contains DNA and is responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells.
Chromatin: Complex of DNA and portiens (such as histones) in the nucleus.
Chromosome: A particularly condensed form of the DNA (and associated proteins).
Endoplasmatic reticulum (ER): Network of interconnected membranestructures in the
cytoplasm. Rough ER is associated with ribiosomes and functions in synthesis of
secretory and membrane proteins. Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid biosynthesis.
Flagellum: Protein complex that can be used for cell movement.
Golgi complex/Golgi apparatus: Stacks of mebraneous structures that function in processing and
sorting of lipids and proteins to be sent to specific cellular compartments or for secretion.
Lysosome: A membrane, bounded ”bag” with an internal low pH and which can ingest and digest
particles entering the cell.
Microfilament: Protein fibers acting as motors, for example in muscle contraction.
Mitochondrion: Organelle surrounded by a membrane similar to in bacteria. Contains a small DNAmolecule and is the site of oxidative phosphorylation, leading to ATP formation.
Nucleolus: Structure in the nucleus responsible for rRNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly.
Nucleus: A membrane-bounded organelle containing the chromosomes
Peroxisome: Involved in degradation of fatty acids and amino acids.
Plasma membrane. The membrane that represents the outer boundary of the cell.
Plasmodesmata: Channles for transport out of or between cells in plants.
Ribosome: A particle consisting of over 50 different proteins and rRNA and that
represents the machinery for translation.
Tonoplast: The mebrane that surrounds the vacuole.
Vacuole: A ”bag”/vesicle inside the cytoplasm involved in intracellular secretion, storage and
digestion.
A cut through an onion: Organisms are collections of cells that
cooperate. It is therefore critical to understand how a single cell
functions.
The structures of bacteria are much simpler than that of
eukaryotes. Bacteria lack organelles, and there are also
many other fundamental differences in the entire cellular
machinery, molecularly and functionally. Thus, from a
molecular point of view humans are much more similar to
bananas than bananas are to bacteria.
The mitochondria in eukaryotes are probably ”old” bacteria.
All organisms (except some viruses, which are normally
not called organisms) still share in common that their
hereditary material is DNA.
DNA
(nucleoid)
Cell wall
Cytoplasmic
membrane
The typical appearance of bacteria as seen
in a transmission electron microsocpe (a)
or in a scanning electron microscope (c)
Two main
types of
bacteria: G+
and G-
Gram–negative
Gram–positive
Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic membrane
Periplasm
Membrane
Outer membrane
(Iipopolysaccharide and protein)
Outer membrane
Peptidoglycan
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Peptidoglycan
Archae are neither
bacteria nor
eukaryotes, but
belong to the
prokaryotes, see tree
of life
Archae can form
numerous “bisarre”
structures
Viruses can attack all types of organisms, from bacteria to plants, animals
and humans. Any given virus typically attacks only one or a few closely
related species. All viruses share in common that they depend on a cell to
propagate themselves. Unlike all cells, viruses may have RNA as their
hereditary material
FIGURE 1.24
Examples of Different Viruses
Viruses come in a variety of shapes and sizes that determine whether the entire virus or only
its genome enters the host cells.
Biotechnology by Clark and Pazdernik
Copyright © 2012 by Academic Press. All rights reserved.
13
Viruses may contain many different forms of their herediatry material (DNA or
RNA), and it can consist of a single chromosome or several, and the DNA or
RNA may be single or double-stranded. In cells the hereditary material is always
double-stranded DNA.
Nonenveloped
Enveloped
ssDNA
Parvovirus
Nonenveloped
Enveloped all ssRNA
partially
dsDNA
Hepadnavirus
Rhabdovirus
ssRNA
dsDNA
Papovavirus
dsDNA
Picornavirus
Togavirus
Orthomyxovirus
dsDNA
Poxvirus
Adenovirus
dsRNA
dsDNA
Bunyavirus
Coronavirus
Arenavirus
Retrovirus
Reovirus
dsDNA
Herpesvirus
Paramyxovirus
Iridovirus
DNA viruses
RNA viruses
T4-virus, is a bacteriophage,
which means it attacks bacteria
Influenza-virus
Infection of a bacterium
with bacteriophage T4
Tail
fibers
Tail pins
Outer
membrane
Tail
lysozyme
Peptidoglycan
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Cytoplasm
T4 genome
Living organisms are built from cells, and from a scientific point of
view they may be compared to machines (cars?)
Car
Can make copies of themselves?
Need energy to function?
The energy originates from the same
sources?
Need energy to avoid self-destruction?
Functions according to the laws of nature?
Wears out over time, even if energy supply is
good?
Can repair itself?
Cell
The chemical components of cells:
Macromolecules:
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
Proteins
Lipids
Polysaccharides
Lipopolysaccharides (a combination of lipid and polysaccharide)
”Small” molecules and elements
Water
Carbohydrates (also building blocks of polysaccharides)
Amino acids (also building blocks of proteins)
Purins/pyrimidines (also parts DNA and RNA)
Nukleosides and nukleotides (also parts of DNA and RNA, contain purins
and pyrimidins)
Other organic metabolites
Phosphate
Sulfate
Ammonium
Metals/ions