Transcript RULES OF THE GAME

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CHAPTER ONE!
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STARGAZING NIGHT!
Lesley, Lauren, Caitlin, and Allie lay on
the ground in the middle of the field
on a thick, huge, carpet like towel and
looked out into the night sky…...It
was dark and quiet. There was not a
sound around except for the
occasional insect chorus that seemed
to creep out of no where! Suddenly
they saw it, a streak of light, as
though somebody had moved a cursor
over the sky and made a white line
that was powdery and bright across
the sky!
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STARDUST STARGAZING!
Did you see that? Did you see that?
That is a falling star..No it isn’t…it’s a
piece of rock falling through the
sky…And their voices gradually
died…as the number of white lines
crossing the sky grew in number and
there was no time to speak at all.
“You know we are trying to find out if
we are made of star dust this year in
school”, said Lesley. “Yeah right” said
Lauren. “I wonder how we are going
to do that?” asked Caitlin.
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Lots of pieces of ‘stories’ fall
through the sky. Some are big
enough to change our way of life!
Scientists say that all it takes is
about 200 kilograms of asteroid
material to ‘kick up’ enough earth
material to block out the sun. All
planets and their satellites get
‘hit’ by star stuff, all the time!
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Look at our moon through a
good telescope and you can see
that it is pock marked with so
many asteroid collisions that you
wonder how spaceship earth
could have escaped such a
pummeling!?
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Some pieces have hit the earth.
One of them did actually throw
up enough dust to block the
sun and make things real
uncomfortable for the
dinosaurs! Luckily for us those
big monster lizards died out and
allowed a species like ours to
develop.
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How do we know to ‘read’ the story
that each meteor, asteroid, or rock
has to say? How do we know that
this rock is ‘star stuff’? How would
we know if we are ‘stardust’?
Read on and you will take a journey
of discovery…..
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RULES OF THE GAME
Just a few rules to the game.
These rules are there for you
to make the best of the game
of learning. Remember, in this
game winner takes all.
Knowledge is power.
Play the game well.
The most important rule, is
for us to respect one another.
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Being ready for class
with all materials,
Raising your hand and
listening to what is
going on in class, shows
respect for one
another.
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THINGS TO REMEMBER
Bring your Journal and Agenda books
with you daily. Write a date and a title
for each daily journal entry. Use both
sides of the paper. There should be at
least 2 sections in your Journal. The
rough and the final sections, and they
both are equally important.
When you listen in class, take down
rough notes. Your daily homework is
to write final notes, and place it in
the final notes section of your
journal.
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Rewards, rewards……!!!
“when you want to contribute to the
discussion in class, think how you will be
rewarded for speaking up in class and
contributing to the discussion.” – Jonny.
Sometimes the teacher is not going to be
able to get to your raised hand. You must
be patient and await your turn. However,
it is very important that you try and
contribute in class),
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How to write notes and succeed!
Eye contact with teacher helps in
learning to listen attentively.
Raise your hand when you want to
add to or question any material
that is discussed. You are
rewarded for intelligent input at
all times. Go ahead and raise your
hand if you’re sure!
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
What is discussed in class must
be noted down in your rough
notes section. You can do this in
several ways, we will discuss all
of them. For now, write a date
and title, and start writing these
ideas…….what should you write
in the rough notes?
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Writing rough notes…..
Use quick sentences, words, concept
maps, telegraph , in such a way that
you can remember what you discussed
in class later at home. You can use the
notes the teacher puts on the board
or on screen. Add to it with scribbles
and notations. Read what the
textbook says about the topic, and
note down questions.
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How to write final notes…
When you go home there is homework for
you to do everyday! It may not take much
time, but what you do in the homework is
extremely important. Both in terms of what
you are intending to learn and in what we
want you to develop in science skills. You are
also graded for it. That’s how you show
others how much you have learnt. It’s a
measure of your success!
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Final notes…..
In order to write final notes, you must be
able to read and understand what was
discussed in class, and then rewrite what
you understood in the final notes section.
You must now write clear narrative
sentences describing what it was that you
learnt. Make each sentence count.
To this description add information, about
the topic, from another source, such as
the internet, or a book, or a scientist!
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Final take…..
The final notes should take you 20
minutes each day. If you have not
finished what you wanted to write for
that day in 20 minutes leave it for the
next day. Don’t leave it for too many
days undone. It will be hard for you to
catch up!!! Have a date and a title for
each day and topic.
Add further information on the topic by
researching, from the internet, at the
library, or your textbook. Add the
proper bibliography when you do this.
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BEING SUCCESSFUL….HOW TO…
Weekly schedules tell you
what is going to be studied
for a period of time and
helps you plan for those
weeks. Attach it safely in
your journal.
This year we will be trying to
find out if we are all made
up of “stardust”!
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GRADING IS DONE WITH:
30% GIVEN TO YOUR JOURNAL,
30% TO LAB REPORTS AND LAB
WORK,
30% TO TESTS, AND
10% TO QUIZZES AND CLASS
PARTICIPATION.
Always be prepared with all the materials you
need for class. ( i.e. Pens (black, blue and red
pens – for correcting; pencils, graph paper,
scissors, protractor, ruler etc.)
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WHAT MAKES SCIENCE CLICK..!
What makes science click is that
we always start with an idea. This
idea does not have to be correct.
But we always do something about
finding out whether it is true or
not! Suppose you were given a loop
of paper and you were asked to
guess how many pieces of it you
would have, if you cut it
lengthwise? What would your idea
be?
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Checking out an idea!?
Take the strip of adding machine
paper and make a loop out of it and
stick the ends together, after you
have made one twist with one of the
ends, just before attaching the ends
together with masking tape. You will
then be asked to cut along one
surface (lengthwise!) until you have
reached the place where you began.
If this is difficult, please ask. THIS IS
THE HARD PART!
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WHAT’S WITH THE MOBIUS STRIP?
How many pieces of paper
would you have when you do
this? Was it the same idea you
had before you started the
activity?
What if…..you had made two
twists to the end before you
stuck it together? How many
pieces would you have?
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MOBIUS STRIP
The Mobius strip is a curious paper
model. It has mathematical
significance, but we are not really
interested in all of that.
The Mobius strip is the simplest
geometric shape with one surface and
edge. You could be traveling for ever
on a mobius strip. Try running your
finger on any one surface. For your
final notes research on the internet
about this…
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A hypothesis about shapes!
When you did this activity you made
a Hypothesis. A Hypothesis is
another name for the idea with
which you start any work in
science. It does not have to be
correct and you may find that it is
not correct after you finish the
experiment.. This happens a lot in
Science!
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What is your hypothesis?
In the previous activity your
hypotheses was to guess how
many pieces you would have
when you cut it along one
surface. It was an educated
guess based on past
observations and experiences.
Was it correct? Does it
matter?
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Chapter 2
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THE COOKIE CONNECTION
When you try writing rough notes
today why don’t you try a concept
map.
It helps you write notes and put in
a lot of details quickly.
While you chew on the cookie I gave
you, savor the ingredients that it is
made up of. Then tell me what they
are. Your answer would probably be:
Flour, sugar, salt, milk, butter etc. But
what are those materials made up of?
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Elements that make up cookies!
These elements that the cookie is
made up of are themselves made up of
smaller little pieces. The first people
to get this idea were the ancient
Greek Philosophers like Democritus.
They concluded that all matter must
be made up of small ‘atomos”!
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A person called John
Dalton eventually said
that ‘elements’ are
substances that have only
one kind of atom in them.
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THE COMPOUND
Elements come together to
form Compounds. There is
always two or more
elements in a compound.
Compounds can be made
up of similar elements but
be totally different!
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The watery compound!
Water is made up of 2 atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen,
however, if your increased the
number of oxygen atoms, from one
to two you would have a totally
different compound! 2 atoms of
hydrogen and 2 atoms of oxygen
combine to form Hydrogen
Peroxide.
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DANGEROUS SALT ON YOUR EGG!
Salt is made up of two
elements: Sodium and
Chlorine. Sodium is a very
explosive metal, and
Chlorine is a very poisonous
gas. It was used in WWII.
You can guess why it was
used!
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Mixing elements….
Mix these two dangerous
elements together and you get
a totally new compound which
has its own, wonderful, safe,
characteristics or properties.
Sugar is made up of three
elements: Carbon, Hydrogen,
and Oxygen.
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JUST WHAT IS PAPER?
If you tried to analyze what
paper was made up of, you would
find that it is made up of the
same elements that sugar is made
up of. However, the amount of
each element in paper and sugar
are different.
C12H22O11 – SUGAR;
C10H11012 - PAPER
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So what about us humans?
By changing the amount of
elements that are together it is
possible to make a totally
different compound! Sugar has
three elements in it; Carbon,
Hydrogen, and oxygen. We human
beings are quite a bunch of
elements combined together!
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Where did it all begin?
If we could tell where these elements
actually got made, we could begin to
understand where it all began. One
of the first concepts or ideas we are
going to investigate is:
Where do these elements come from
and how are they made?
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NATURE’S KITCHEN
If these elements, that everything is
made up of, come from stars then we
would be made up of star dust! This is
our quest for this year. We are trying
to investigate whether this may be
true.
Where’s Nature’s Kitchen,
Where the elements are cooked,
Where does life begin…?
Where should our search begin!!!
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Chapter 3 !
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Measurements
In order to investigate
where elements come
from and how they are
made, it is necessary to
establish standards of
measurements.
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Why have measurements?
Without these standards it would
be difficult to tell someone what
we found out. Everything that is
stated must be backed up with
standards. These standards are
there to help us in our quest and
to communicate with others in the
scientific community.
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Measurements.
In the world of Science,
measurements are done in the
Metric System. This system is
not new in our country,
although we do not use it
frequently. Measuring in the
Metric system means, measuring
in tens!
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The metric system is easy…!
Its so easy! For example 1000
meters is a kilometer. This is
easy as we can count in 10’s. A
thousand is a hundred of the
10’s. Similarly a 100 is 10 of the
ten’s! The English system is the
confusing one, we do not use it
in science at all! (Pounds,
Ounces!)
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Prefixes in the metric
system.
Kilo stands for thousand in the metric
system. While 100 meters would be a
Hectometer, 10 meters would be a
decameter. Similarly 1/10th of a meter
would be a decimeter, 1/100th of a meter
would be centimeter, and 1000th of a
meter would be a millimeter. In this way
there are prefixes that tell us exactly
what we are talking about.
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WHAT EXACTLY IS A KILOGRAM
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THE PICTURE SHOWS THE
PLATINUM-IRIDIUM
INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE,
AS KEPT AT THE
INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
UNDER CONDITIONS
SPECIFIED BY THE 1ST CGPM IN
1889.
THE KILOGRAM IS THE UNIT
OF MASS; IT IS EQUAL TO THE
MASS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE
OF THE KILOGRAM. IT IS
ESTABLISHED TO END ANY
CONFUSION REGARDING THE
MEANING/DEFINITION OF
THE WORD “WEIGHT”.
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MEASUREMENT cont’d
There are different units used to measure
different kinds of quantities. Mass is
measured in grams, volume in liters and
length in meters.
Prefixes in the metric system helps us
understand what portion we are talking
about. ‘Kilo’ means you have have a
thousand units of a measurement, and ‘milli’
means you have a thousandth of a
measurement.
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How much do you have?
If you take a bottle of water and weigh it, you
say that it weighs 2 kilograms, or that you are
holding 2 kilograms of mass. However, if you
took a bottle and measure how much water you
have in it you say you have 2 liters of water in
the bottle. You can also weigh the bottle of
water and express how many grams of water you
have in the bottle. Measurements work to
communicate how much material you have!
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Chapter 4
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So what is Mass???
Mass is something that cannot be
destroyed or created. It is what
anything is made up of. It is a
fundamental property of any
matter. In other words mass is
something that all things that have
matter have! If you burn paper
then all you are left with is ash.
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Where did the paper go?
However, the rest of what the
paper is made up of did not
disappear. Parts of paper
changed from the solid form to
the gas form! Paper is made of
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
Ash that is left over is the
carbon.
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Where did the paper go?
The Hydrogen and the oxygen does
not disappear but moved from
being a part of the solid paper to
gases. The connections between
carbon, oxygen and the hydrogen
elements is destroyed. This enables
the oxygen and hydrogen to be
released as gas into the air!
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The difference between a solid, a
liquid, and a gas object is the space
between the atoms or molecules
that makeup that object.
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Liquid atoms…..
In the first picture you have the
atoms/molecules are very close
together. In the second picture
you have material in which the
atoms/molecules are together and
yet are far enough to enable them
to slip and slide past each other.
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Putting you finger through a
table!…
In the third picture the
atoms/molecules are far
from each other. That is why
you can put your finger
through air (a gas) but you
cannot put your finger
through a solid table. Unless
you tried very hard!!!
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ROGER BACON
Roger Bacon (1214-1294)
Studied geometry,
arithmetic, music, and
astronomy as a young
man. He received a
degree from the
university of Paris
around 1241 and lectured
on Aristotle’s ideas.
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Roger Bacon’s interests
His interests in mathematics and
sciences were nurtured at oxford
where he came back to in 1247.
Introduced the idea of using
mathematics to illustrate ideas in
science with data generated from
experimentation.
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The scientific method…
This method of using data from
experiments in science is the
important part of the scientific
method. The Scientific method is
one of the standards or basic
procedures that we are going to
use in order to see whether we are
made up of stardust!
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Chapter 5
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Lab 1 at last!!!
In Lab 1 you are going to investigate
measurement and the scientific
method, while blowing bubbles! First
take a cup of soap solution, which you
will make from the containers of soap
you have in front of you. Wet an area
about 45 cm diameter on your lab
table. Use a wet napkin to do this.
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Bubble, Bubble…..
Take the straw that is provided and
then dip one end of it into the soap
solution that you made. Bring this
dipped end onto the wet surface
you had prepared and blow gently
through the other end to make a
bubble. You will find that you may
have to make several tries before
you become an expert in this task.
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Which one is the best bubble maker?
You may add any number of breaths
you want to make it big or small. But
you must use the same amount of
breaths for all the different kinds of
soaps. You need to make five
different bubbles for each soap.
Measure the diameter of each bubble
when it breaks. An impression of
circle will appear on the lab table
when the bubble breaks.
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Which one is the best?
Repeat this with every brand of
soap and measure the bubble’s
diameter. Decide which brand
gives the biggest bubble.
Calculate the average bubble
diameter for each brand of
soap.
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LAB 1 REPORT.
The purpose of lab I is to
take you, the student,
through the scientific
method, as outlined by
Roger Bacon, and every
scientist after him.
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The scientific method.
The scientific method is a process by
which any idea in science could be
tested. In order for any idea to be
accepted as scientific theory or fact, it
has to be tested and the experiment
must show numerical values (numbers
and units) that show that the idea is
correct or not.
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What you are doing in the lab..
What you are going to do is simple. The
hypothesis, or the educated guess that
you are going to make, about the
outcome of the experiment, will be
tested and shown to be either correct
or incorrect. Remember there is no
wrong or right answer until it is tested
and the correct answer is found.
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What is a lab report?
You will be testing several soap solutions
and you have to decide which one
produces the biggest bubble. You must
start with a reasonable estimate or
hypothesis as to which soap solution will
eventually produce the biggest bubble.
Your hypothesis does not have to be
correct in the end. You will present your
results in a lab report.
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The lab report
The lab report will consist of, 1)The
purpose (to investigate the scientific
method). 2) An introduction (an essay
describing the idea that you are
investigating, in this lab it is the
Scientific method and soap) . 3) A
procedure (which describes what you
did in the lab), 4) Observations (which
could be presented in the form of a
paragraph and/or data tables/graphs). 5)
Finally, the conclusions that you reach.
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How to write an introduction…
In order to do the introduction you
will have to first research on three
topics. A) the scientific method, b)
Roger Bacon, and c) soap. Go to the
internet, or a book, or a scientist and
collect 10 ideas about these three
topics. List them in your own words in
your final notes section with
bibliography.
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How to write an introduction…
The 10 ideas you had listed in your final
notes section must be expanded to
write your introduction to Lab 1. Plan
your time well. You can break up your
work into several days. Do work
everyday in science (at least 25
minutes). Combine two or three ideas
and form a paragraph. In this way by
using the 10 ideas you will have a short
essay with all the ideas presented well.
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WHAT'S IN A DATA TABLE?
The purpose of a table is
to record the data you
collected while doing an
experiment. The data can
be used to make a graph.
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The graph…
The graph shows the same
material that is in the data
table, but as a picture. In
fact it might allow you to
determine some more ideas
about the data.
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DATA TABLE FOR LAB 1
SOAP Tria Trial Trial Trial Trial Avg
l1
2
3
4
5
(Cm
)
Publix 18
23
16
16
12
17
Sunli 14
15
17
13
12
14.2
Dawn 11
15
18
17
16
15.4
Palm 18
31
16
29
33
25.4
Joy
10
17
10
14
5
11.2
Dove 18
20
17
22
15
18.4
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ORDER OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF LAB 1 REPORT.
Purpose, Introduction, Procedure,
Observations/data table, Graph,
and conclusion (Inference).
According to your data which soap
was the most effective “bubble
maker”? In what way does the
experiment illustrate the Scientific
method.
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Lab instruments….
There are many lab instruments that
scientists can use. You are going to
use many of them this year. These
Lab instruments are all used to
measure various materials. The units
you will use depend on what exactly
you are measuring, and what you
want measured.
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Beakers and graduated cylinders.
A Beaker is a glass utensil that is
used to measure volume in liters or
milliliters. However, if you wanted
to measure out 20 milliliters then
you would probably use a graduated
cylinder which allows you to
measure smaller quantities.
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Volume in meters!
You can also measure volume using the
length units. We did build a cubic meter.
This makes it possible to measure
volume in length units. When you built a
metric cube you had to notice that
there was a length, a width, and a depth
involved. You need to multiply these
three length measurements together to
get the volume in a metric cube.
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Another instrument
Another lab instrument you can use
would be a thermometer. This
instrument measures temperature.
Temperature is actually the measure
of the energy of particles around
the thermometer. The unit used to
measure temperature is centigrade
although the universal standard is
Kelvin.
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CHOOSE YOUR CONSTELLATION
This assignment will require a trip to the
library. In ancient times, there were no
television shows or radio shows or even
theaters. People invented their own
fantasies. They were mostly interested in
getting food on the table and
maintaining their relationship with god
and making sure they reaped good
harvests.
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The harvest moon!
Most of the food in those days came from
working on a communal farm. The planting
seasons and harvesting seasons were
marked my important days. It was
important for the farmers to look to the
sky for guidance. The night sky became the
backdrop for stories. These stories
eventually became folklore! People passed
these stories down through the ages.
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Constellations.
Your task is to choose one
constellation. A constellation is a
pattern of stars in the sky that seem to
resemble mythical gods, people, or
animals. Make a drawing of your
constellation with the stars that make
up the outline. Name at least 3 stars in
it, 3 important items about it, and a
mythological ‘story’ connected to it.
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Your star assignment…
Write in your own words a story
connected to this constellation.
If you cannot find a story, then
make up your own!
Find out the names of the main
stars that make up your
constellation.
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Chapter 6
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In order to know what the
stars are, it is necessary for
us to examine how our ideas
about stars developed over
the thousands of years
through which stars have
been studied.
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Archimedes
Archimedes lived from 287 BC to 212
BC. Whenever we count years before
AD (Anno Domini), we usually count
down to ‘0’, when 1 AD begins. We
are now in 2000AD (that is 2000 years
after the birth of Christ)., and 2000
years since the end of 1 BC!(Before
the birth of Christ)
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Story of Archimedes….
There are many fantastic
stories about Archimedes
and his inventions. One of
the most fascinating stories
is the one about his solution
to a problem given to him by
King Hiero II of Syracuse.
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Crown……of gold?
It was a story about a crown that was
made by an artist. The king suspected
that the crown did not have all the
gold that was supposed to be used and
he suspected that silver may have been
mixed in as a substitute. Since the
crown had a religious significance it
could not be melted or changed.
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How he did it!
Archimedes had to find out whether
the crown had all the gold it was
supposed to have without damaging the
crown. He thought about this for many
days and then stumbled upon the
solution while he was in a bath. He was
so happy he ran out into the streets
shouting ‘eureka’ (which means I got it!)
not realizing that he was not dressed!
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Density….
The answer included the concept of
density. This concept refers to the
idea that anything that has mass has
its own particular density. Density is
the amount of mass that is packed
into a particular volume. It is
expressed in the unit grams per
milliliter or centimeter cubed (g/ml or
g/cm3).
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Volume in length
measurements….!
Remember volume can be
measured in milliliters (unit
of volume) or cm3 (which is a
length unit cubed).
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ARCHIMEDES THE INVENTOR!
Archimedes invented many
machines, which were used by his
king to save the city. He was,
therefore, a very important person in
Syracuse. Amongst the machines he
designed were the war catapult, the
Archimedean screw, and mirrors that
reflected light and burnt approaching
ships sails!!
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ARCHIMEDEAN INVENTIONS
THE ARCHIMEDEAN
SCREW THAT
ENABLED PEOPLE TO
BRING WATER FROM
A LOWER PLACE TO
A HIGHER
ELEVATION!
THE GRAPPLER
HOISTED SHIPS
RIGHT OUT OF THE
WATER!
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ARCHIMEDEAN INVENTIONS
THE MIRRORS THAT
HE INVENTED
COULD BE FOCUSED
IN SUCH A WAY
THAT THE SUNS
RAYS WERE
CONCENTRATED ON
THE ENEMY’S SHIPS
SAILS AND THE SHIP
ITSELF, THUS
SETTING IT ON FIRE.
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ARCHIMEDES AND THE CROWN.
This is a statue of
Archimedes that has
survived. The
notorious crown that
gave him fame
probably looked like
the one shown here.
The crown was made
for a statue of a god
in a temple, and
therefore had a
religious
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HOW ARCHIMEDES SOLVED THE CROWN PROBLEM!
If the crown and an
equal mass of gold was
taken and immersed in
water, the density of the
crown and the mass of
gold should be the same.
If the crown had the
same amount of gold!
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The gold crown…
Density is dependent on both the
weight and the volume of the crown.
In other words how much mass of
gold is packed into a particular
volume of space. The chunk of gold
would have a particular mass of gold
atoms packed into its volume.
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So does it have it all…?
The crown too would have its
own arrangement but with added
material which substituted the
gold. If the crown had more
density then it would be known
that it was more tightly packed
than actual gold.
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Among the famous ideas that he introduced is
that, the volume of an irregular object can be
found by immersing this object (such as a rock)
in water and measuring the volume of an
irregular object. Put the rock in a glass of
water and measure how much water rises in
the glass when the rock is in it, then the volume
of the rock would be exactly equal to the
volume of water that rises in the glass.
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Density and Buoyancy
Density and Buoyancy are two
basic concepts that are used to
measure and make a distinction
between materials. This way we
can have a good understanding
of what material we are dealing
with!
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BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is a concept that describes how
anything can float on liquids. Water is a
liquid, oxygen is a gas, and a piece of iron is a
solid. When you put something in water or
air, it looses a bit of weight. According to
Archimedes this is because the water that
you put the solid in, exerts a force on the
solid. The amount of weight it loses in water
will be equal to the force that the water is
exerting on the solid.
107
Density of a rock!
If you weigh the rock and then divide
the weight by its volume, you will be
able to determine the density of the
rock. This tell us how much mass or
matter is stuffed into the space that
the rock takes up. Remember volume
can be measured in milliliters or
cubic meters. (ml OR cm3 )
108
BUOYANCY
BUOYANT FORCE ACTS
UPWARD AGAINST THE
FORCE OF WEIGHT WHICH
IS ACTING DOWNWARD. IF
THE TWO ARE EQUAL, YOU
WILL FLOAT!
IT IS LIKE THE ICEBERGS
THAT ARE FLOATING ON
THE WATER IN THE
PICTURE.
109
If you put a piece of wood into water
then the water is pushing up on the
piece of wood. If the push/force
exerted by water is equal to the weight
of the piece of wood in water, then it
would float. If you were to put a piece
of wood in a beaker, and measure the
volume of water that rises, you would
find that it equals the volume of the
piece of wood. Also amazingly, the
weight of water that rises will be
exactly the same as the weight the
piece of wood loses when it is put in the
110
water!
Things about buoyancy
you need to know…..
Loss of weight of object in water =
weight of water that is displaced by
the object.
Weight of water that is displaced =
buoyant force applied by water on
the object.
Volume of water displaced = volume
of object in water.
111
BOAT/PENNY LAB 2
You could make a paper boat and an aluminum
boat and compare the amount of pennies each
would be able to carry. Make a paper boat and
an aluminum boat, using the same area of
material.
Conduct three trials on each boat by putting
pennies in the boats and counting till it sinks.
You may have to make three paper boats.
Always remember to use the same amount of
paper, for each boat.
112
Data and conclusions for lab 2
Represent your data in this manner on a
separate sheet of paper titled lab 2:
Trail 1 - 45 pennies
Trail 2 - 68 pennies
Trail 3 - 102 pennies
Why did some designs work better than others?
Why do some shapes float? Remember you
have to use Archimedes’ ideas on buoyancy to
answer this question. Do you find that the
larger the surface area the more pennies you
are able to fit into the aluminum boats? Can
you see that pressure depends on force and the
area its applied over?
113
MUST HAVE STUFF
NOTES FROM LAST 2 WEEKS
LAB 1 NOTES PREP
LAB 1 DATA TABLE ROUGH ONLY
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
ROGER BACON ETC
RESEARCH ORGANIZATION
ARCHIMEDES, CONCLUSION QUEST.
RESEARCH LIST
TEST REVIEW 2
114
Chapter 7
115
LAB 3 PREP
In this lab you will be
investigating density. Density is
a property of matter. It
describes how compactly packed
the stuff in the object can be. In
terms of how much mass there is
in a unit of volume.
116
Density of iron…..
For example the Density of
pure water is 1 gm/ml or in
other words there is always
one gram of water in one
milliliter of space. Similarly,
Iron would have a different
density as it is a solid, and
there would be more stuff
packed into one milliliter of
iron than one milliliter of
water!
117
Why does iron sink in water?
This is why Iron is heavier than
water and it will sink in water.
Density is a property of matter.
It describes how compactly
packed the stuff in the object
can be, in terms of how much
mass there is in a unit volume.
118
More on Lab 3…..
In Lab 3 you will be comparing
the densities of three different
substances. By calculating the
densities of these three
materials you will understand
how to find out density, and
that different materials have
different densities.
119
Procedure for lab 3
Take three cups and label them A, B,
and C.
Measure the mass of each cup.
Fill each with the following materials:
cup A with 10 ml of water; cup B with
10 ml of oil; and cup C with 10 ml of
molasses. Do not taste the molasses
even if you know its going to be sweet!!!
120
Procedure for lab 3
Find the mass of each material in
each cup by taking away the weight
of the empty cup from the weight of
the material and the cup.
Find the density of each material by
dividing the weight (mass) of each
material by the volume of that
material.
Make a data table listing all the
measurements you got…
121
Data table lab 3
Cup A
Wt of 25 ml of water + cup=
100 g
Wt of cup
=
75 g
Wt of 25ml of water
=
25 g
Volume of water
=
25 ml
Density of water =M/V = 25g/25ml
=
1 g/ml
Repeat these steps for each cup, placing
them in the same order, keeping in mind that
the material would be different in each cup!
122
LAB 3 DATA
Having a good data table helps in
understanding what was done in
the experiment, and what your
data has achieved. Lab data
should be listed in a clear and
concise fashion, so that anybody
can see that you have got results
that can be checked out.
123
TEST 3 REVIEW
10 MULTIPLE/FILL IN BLANKS
SCIENTIFIC METHOD, METRIC SYSTEM,
MASS, VOLUME, DENSITY,
ARCHIMEDES.
3 CALCULATIONS WITH DENSITY
REMEMBER MASS/VOLUME = DENSITY
L X W X H = VOLUME i.e.
3cmX3cmX3cm
= 27cm3
VOL. OF IRREGULAR OBJECT- PLACE IN
WATER HOW MUCH WATER RISES IS
THE VOLUME OF THE OBJECT.
124
LAB 3 REPORT
The results and the general description
of ideas that you have investigated in
this lab must be written down in a
report. The report is a formal
presentation of your findings. It is as
valuable as a test, so spend some quality
time preparing it. Following the format
would be advisable.
125
Lab report on density.
INTRODUCTION: (Use these topics to write a
good essay connecting the ideas given to
you. Try to present them in a logical
sequence. Which means that you should try
to write the essay as though it were a story
you were telling me, with a beginning, a
middle and a end. Use the topics listed to
make up the ‘story’ or description.
Mass, Volume, Density, Archimedes
126
.
PROCEDURE: state
what you did so that
someone else could
perform the same
experiment using your
procedures.
127
OBSERVATIONS: (In this lab the data table
would be your observations, however, if you
want to add anything ineresting that you saw
then it adds to your report.
MASS OF CUP A + WATER=
32.64g
MASS OF CUP A
=
10.46g
MASS OF WATER
=
22.28g
VOLUME OF WATER
=
25.00ml
DENSITY OF WATER
=
M/V
22.28g/25ml
=
0.91g/ml
REPEAT FOR ALL THREE STEPS IN THE SAME
WAY. SHOW AND LIST ALL MEASUREMENTS
AS SHOWN ABOVE, FOR ALL THREE CUPS.
128
CONCLUSION :– In this section
please discuss the following in the
narrative style: 1. Which liquid
was the most dense? Why? 2. If
you arranged the liquids in a cup
which one would be under which?
Why? 3. How does water’s density
compare to the other liquids?
129
ELEMENTS
The next topic we are going to
investigate is the element.. We
already know that elements make up
all the matter we see around us.
Now we will study what is inside
these elements. This will enable us to
see what happens in stars and how
stars cook them up!
130
Chapter 8
131
There are about 109 elements in the
known universe. Elements are
special materials. Each of them is
made up of one basic component.
For example if you were to take a
piece of gold (which is an element)
and cut it into half you would have
two equal pieces of gold.
132
Each of these halves would be exactly the
same as the original piece. Now if you
continued to cut each half that you have,
into further halves, after 90 divisions of
exact halves, you would eventually reach
an atom of gold. The piece of gold that
you originally had was made up of billions
of these same gold atoms.
133
All elements are made up of atoms that
are similar in mass and other ways. In
each element you will find only one kind
of atom. Silver is made up of silver
atoms. Hydrogen is made up of
hydrogen atoms. The names and other
information about elements are found
of the periodic chart.
134
ELEMENTS/ PERIODIC TABLE
Many elements on the periodic chart were
discovered only in the recent past. But for
hundreds of years people around the
world have recognized the value of some
elements. Gold and silver were used
since ancient times and everyone knew of
them. Copper was used to make brass
and thus elements that were useful were
known a long time ago.
135
Iron and copper like other
metallic elements were used to
make weapons and useful
tools. With metal it was easy
for farmers to make crude farm
instruments that would last
many years.
136
The periodic chart was designed in such away
that anybody looking at it could know quite a
bit about these elements.. Some have symbols
are based on Latin names.
Pb - (PLUM BUM)lead, Al -Aluminum, C- Carbon,
Si-Silicon, Zn-Zinc, Ca -Calcium, Fe - (FERROUS)
Iron, Sn - TIN, Cu - (CUPRIC) Copper, NaSodium ETC.
137
the periodic table arranged….
They are all arranged
according to the number
of protons in their
nucleus. In order to
know what this means
we must look at what an
atom looks like.
138
The periodic chart was first
designed by a Russian scientist
called Dimitri Mendeleev. It has
changed since then but it has
always been arranged according
to the number of protons an
atom of an element has.
139
The atom looks so much like a sphere
that has a cloud of fast moving
electrons on the outside and a center
made up of neutrons and protons.
The sphere’s outer portion looks fuzzy
since these electrons are moving close
to the speed of light as it revolves
around the nucleus.
140
The protons and electrons have
electrical charges. The electron is
negatively charged and the proton is
positively charged just like a battery.
The neutrons have a special job and
are neutral in terms of charge. It
keeps these opposite charges from
getting together.
141
If opposite charges are kept near
each other, they tend to attract each
other. Like poles of a magnet repel
each other. Unlike poles attract each
other. Each atom of an element has
its own number of protons, neutrons
and electrons.
142
The atomic number gives you the
number of protons and electrons. If
the atomic mass is rounded up it
becomes the atomic mass number.
When the atomic number is taken
away from the atomic mass number
you get the number of neutrons.
143
144
145
ATOMS/PERIODIC CHART
The electrons are buzzing away
and circling outside the nucleus
moving at 300,000km/sec.
Although the electron is about
1600 times smaller than the
proton/neutron it packs an
equal punch in terms of charge.
146
The proton has a positive charge, there
are always an equal number of protons
and electrons in a normal atom. In every
atom there is always a balance of
charges. We will not get a shock when
we touch ordinary items made of these
atoms since there is this balance. Charges
are exactly equal in number and cancel
each other out.
147
AN OXYGEN ATOM IN ALL IT’S GLORY!
148
RECOUPING!
We have come across so
much so far….Lets review it
so we know where we are
exactly…
149
We know what elements are
and what they are made up
of, and that we are made up
of elements. Elements are
made up of atoms that are
all similar.
150
Each of these atoms have equal
numbers of protons and electrons to
cancel out the charges, and the
neutron number can be calculated by
using the rounded up atomic mass
(atomic mass number) and taking it
away the atomic number from it.
151
We know how to measure matter
and how to communicate in
science, and how scientist go
about trying to find out about
stars, ourselves, and nature. That
is a lot of stuff already…but
where do we go from here….???
152
We need to find out where
these elements come
from…. so that we can
know whether we are made
up of stardust….
153
Chapter 9
154
ENERGY/WAVES
Our next task is to investigate energy.
Energy is the only tool we have to
investigate stars. When you throw a stone
into a pond you can see that there are
circular waves that go out from the spot
where the stone fell. These waves are
caused by the energy that the stone gave
to the water as it collided with the water.
155
Energy causes vibrations that
travel in the form of waves. When
a slinky is stretched and touched
different waves could be created.
Longitudinal (compressional
waves) and transverse (sine waves)
waves.
156
Light is energy. It behaves just
like a stone thrown into a pond.
You see waves coming from the
point where the stone fell.
Whatever source putting out light
would have waves of light energy
coming out from that point
157
Just like waves coming out
from that point where the
stone was thrown. But you
cannot see the light waves
coming at you since it
travels at 300,000 km/sec.
158
Waves……
Waves (light) that are traveling outward
are going at 300,000 km/sec. It is one
of the reasons you do not see it’s path.
However, the only information we get
from stars is in the form of light! This is
why we need to study light. We can
learn a lot about stars when we study
light waves.
159
CREST
CREST
160
Waves are made up of
crests, nodes, troughs,
amplitudes, and
wavelengths. Wavelengths
are also known by the greek
letter Lambda.
161
Frequency……
Frequency is the number of crests
or wavelengths that pass a certain
point in one second. If there are
more crests or wavelengths
passing a certain point in one
second it means that that
particular wave has a lot of
frequency.
162
LIGHT AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM.
This is a chart of all the known energies.
Light, an energy is in the middle of this
chart. The chart itself is called the
electromagnetic spectrum. Spectrum is
another word for list.
163
WAVES AND CYCLES
Pieces of light called photons
move in a wave like fashion. A
cycle is actually one
wavelength. The time it takes
for one cycle to occur is a
period.
164
Bowling ball…….
If you hang a bowling ball
from the ceiling and let it
swing, then one swinging
back and forth motion
would be a cycle..
165
Cycles and periods…..
1 Cycle = 1 Complete
wavelength
The time it takes for 1 cycle
= 1 period = Time it takes
for one swing forward and
back to where you started.
166
Cycles and frequency…..
A cycle could be seen as a unit.
A measure of how many cycles or
wavelengths or crests that pass a
certain point in one second is the
frequency of that wave.
Frequency is measured in Hertz.
167
Radio waves have more
wavelength than gamma
rays but it has much less
less frequency than
gamma rays. They both
travel at 300,000 km/sec.
168
WAVES

1 CYCLE

Transverse waves look
like waves in the sea.
Longitudinal waves or
Compressional waves
look like dominoes that
fall in a row when the
first one is touched.
169
WAVES
ANOTHER LOOK AT A
TRANSVERSE WAVE.
ANOTHER LOOK AT A
LONGITUDINAL OR
COMPRESSION
WAVE.
170
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Longitudinal or compression waves are
similar to sound waves that move by
passing its energy from particle to another.
Like dominoes arranged in a row.
171
COMPRESSION WAVE
ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF A LONGITUDINAL OR
A COMPRESSION WAVE PASSING ITS
ENERGY FROM ONE PARTICLE TO ANOTHER.
172
A photon, ( a piece of light!) traveling
through a medium passes right through it
because it has a very short wavelength
and a high frequency.
173
LIGHT
If you use a linear diffraction grating,
which has 1000 slits/mm, (which means
that each slit of plastic is closely
packed) it is possible to split light into
its components. Light is made up of
seven colors/frequencies. They are
red, yellow green, blue, indigo, and
violet.
174
The visible light spectrum….
175
Each has its own frequency, and red
has more wavelength and lesser
frequency than violet (purple).
Purple has less wavelength and more
frequency in the visible light
spectrum. However all the
frequencies travel at 300,000
Km/sec.
176
Burning your hand…….
Radio waves have less
frequency than gamma rays,
which is why it is possible to
block radio waves with your
hand but gamma rays would
burn right through your
hand.
177
When light passes from a less
dense area to a more dense area it
bends or refracts. This is known
as refraction of light. When you
look at a pencil in a glass of water
it is possible to see that it is
broken but it is not really broken.
It just appears bent or broken
because of the refraction of light.
178
MORE DENSE AREA
179
WAVES AND LIGHT
Going through all we have been introduced
to about light: Energy causes vibrations
which move in the form of waves. Waves
can be described by using labels, such as
crests (the top of a wave), troughs (the
bottom of a wave), wavelength (which is
the length from one crest to another, and
amplitude (the length from the center line
of a wave (node) to the top of any crest or
the bottom of any trough.
180
Wavelength can also be represented
by the Greek letter Lambda. A list of
energies is the electromagnetic
spectrum. Light is in the middle of
the electromagnetic spectrum since
its wavelength and frequency fall
into the middle range of the group of
the energies.
181
Light can bend and be
split up into six distinct
colors. Light always
travels in straight lines.
182
Light travels at 300,000 km/sec.
We know that the light that comes
from stars comes straight to us. It
takes this light time to get to us.
Light can also tell us what is in the
star, by looking at the spectrum of
the elements in these stars.
183
MORE REVIEW ABOUT WAVES
Frequency is the number of crests that
pass any point in one second, or the
number of wavelengths that pass a certain
point in one second. The unit is Hertz.
The list of energies stretch from radio
waves to gamma rays. The differences
between these waves is their frequency or
their wavelength.
184
The lesser the wavelength the
more the frequency and vice
versa. Sound energy is different
in that it needs a medium to be
carried. Like energy in the slinky
was seen to be passing through
the metal of the slinky. You
cannot hear in space. Not
enough atoms to carry sound
energy.
185
LAB 4/5
A cycle is one forward and back
movement of the pendulum. Which is
a wavelength. The time it takes to do
this cycle is known as a period. A
robin’s pharynx vibrates about 20,000
times/sec, or 20,000 hertz. The G
string of a guitar vibrates at 20 hertz.
186
Lab 4/5 has many parts. In the first
part you have to make a pendulum.
To make a pendulum you attach a
weight at the end of a string that is
measured. Tie the end without the
weight to the arm of the ring stand
allowing for length adjustments
during the lab. Allow the pendulum
to swing freely. Allow the pendulum
to swing freely. Adjust the length of
the pendulum’s length to the
previously set out measurements.
5,10,15,20,30,35,40 and 45 cm.
187
Pull the pendulum about 45 degrees from
the zero position. This is about half way
between the hanging zero position and the
maximum pull position. Time how long it
takes to do 10 waves. Then divide that
time by 10 to get the time for one wave.
Make a data table with the data and plot a
graph with the Lengths vs. frequency.
188
LAB 4/5
Tie a rope that is given to you to a chair
and shake the rope along the floor till you
can notice a clear wave. Once you have
got a clear wave pattern measure the
wavelength of that wave. Make a wave
with a shorter wavelength and measure it.
Calculate the frequency by judging how
many crests passes in 10 seconds and
dividing the answer by 10.
189
How to write a lab report….
Get research
High light 10 items in it
Put in your own words into the final
notes section
Start your intro story (by arranging the
10 items)
This story must have a beginning, a
middle and an end.
190
Next in the lab report….
Procedure
Datatable/observations: do not forget
units and steps etc.
Conclusions: follow questions to form
paragraph, introduce the data that you
have to prove your answers and analyze
them.
191
Lab 4/5
The third part of lab 4/5 is to conduct a
flame and spectral analysis data table.
Conduct the flame test on the six
metallic nitrates in the test tubes. Follow
all safety instructions and then look at
the flame color through a spectroscope
and list the colors in a data table.
192
LAB 4/5 part 3
LAB 4/5 part 3, is an important experiment.
It will show how it is possible to identify an
element by using the light energy it gives
out when heated. The light energy given off
when heated can be studied by many
instruments, and the information can be
used to identify these metallic elements.
193
You will be given six metallic compounds.
These metallic compounds have metals and
nonmetals combined together. For
example one of the compounds that you
are going to burn is called Copper. As the
name suggests there is a combination of
many elements. Three in Copper Nitrate.
Copper, Nitrogen and Oxygen.
194
It is possible to write
these combinations using
abbreviations. The
abbreviation is called a
chemical formula.
195
Sodium Chloride another compound is
abbreviated to NaCl, which tells us that
there is one atom of Sodium and one
atom of Chlorine combined together to
make up this molecule of the compound.
The molecule is the smallest part that
you can still call this compound. Water is
a compound too!
196
When you see the water
coming out of a tap you
are really seeing billions of
molecules of water that
are close together pouring
out of the faucet.
197
The chemical formula for water is H2O, which
means there is two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen combined together to form one
molecule of this compound.
In the lab you are going to take a bit of each of
the six compounds on to a spatula and burn it
with a flame from a Bunsen burner.
198
LAB 4/5 part 3
A bunsen burner is an important tool
that is used in the chemical laboratory.
It can provide a safe flame to test
materials. However it does produce a
flame and it is dangerous of it is not
handled in the correct way. Listen to all
safety instructions and follow them
carefully. Do not try to be adventurous!
The flame that comes out of bunsen
burner should be light blue in color. If it
is any other color, there is an incorrect
mixture of air and fuel. Contact your
teacher immediately. Wear safety apron
and goggles at all times when near a
199
bunsen burner that is burning.
The flame is extremely hot, although it
does not seem to be. The parts of the
bunsen burner are kept cool by design.
Long hair should be tucked under your
collar or otherwise pulled back well and
kept back at all times when using the
flame.
200
Wet the end of the spatula, with the
acid provided. Bring it into the first
chemical compound. Note which
compound you are using first. Bring
the end of the spatula with the
chemical compound stuck to it into
the flame. Make sure you do not spill
any chemical into the flame.
201
Note the color. Study the flame
through a diffraction grating.
The DG should split the light
that is coming from the
burning metallic element in the
compound, and produce a
specific spectrum. You will not
have much time to see the
spectrum as the flame will
burn the elements quickly. So
be quick to note the colors of
spectrum.
202
Since we had the compound at the end
of the spatula or Nichrome wire when it
went into the fire, the flame color came
from the compound burning. But since
the compound was made from a metal
and the non-metal, the non-metal is
sent up into the atmosphere as a gas
and the flame color came from the
metal part of the compound burning.
203
Bunsen burner
WATCH OUT FOR THE FLAME.
IT IS HOT ONLY AT THE SPOUT THE REST OF THE
BURNER IS NOT HOT TO TOUCH
THE FLAME MAY TURN YELLOW DUE TO THE AIR
INTAKE VALVE AT THE BOTTOM BEING OPEN. TELL
THE TEACHER IF YOU SEE A YELLOW FLAME.
ALWAYS WEAR PROTECTIVE GEAR! WATCH OUT FOR
LONG HAIR THAT IS NOT TIED OR RESTRICTED.
THERE ARE PARTS OF THE FLAME THAT ARE INVISIBLE
JUST ABOVE THE TOP OF THE FLAME. A BLUE FLAME IS
THE BEST FLAME AND IS REALLY HOT.
THE TAP CAN BE TURNED 90 DEGREES TO OPEN.
ALWAYS MAKE SURE IF IT IS OPEN OR NOT.
204
Spectral lines and what they mean.
THE SPECTRAL LINES OF COLOR THAT
YOU SEE THROUGH THE DIFFRACTION
GRATING IS A UNIQUE PATTERN OF
COLORS. EACH ELEMENT HAS ITS OWN
SPECTRAL LINE OF COLOR.
THEREFORE WE HAVE FOUND A WAY TO
ACTUALLY IDENTIFY ANY ELEMENT BY
JUST LOOKING AT THE LIGHT IT GIVES
OFF WHEN IT IS BURNING.
205
I AM NOT SURE WHETHER YOU
HAVE REALIZED THAT YOU
HAVE FOUND A WAY TO FIND
OUT WHAT ELEMENTS ARE
FOUND IN STARS WHICH ARE
REALLY HUGE BURNING
BLOBS OF ELEMENTS!
206
THERE ARE MANY OTHER IDEAS
THAT COULD BE PROVED BY
LOOKING AT THE LIGHT GIVEN
OFF BY ELEMENTS. BUT THIS IS
VERY IMPORTANT TO OUR
QUEST. IN ORDER TO KNOW
WHAT IS IN A STAR WITHOUT
GOING TO A STAR, WE HAVE TO
ONLY LOOK AT THE LIGHT GIVEN
OFF BY IT AND STUDY ITS
SPECTRUM TO KNOW WHAT IS IN
THE STAR!
207
208
THIS IS THE PURPOSE OF LAB 5.
WE HAVE INVESTIGATED THE IDEA
OF IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS USING
SPECTRAL LINES OF COLOR!
YOU MUST NOW WRITE UP A LAB
REPORT DESCRIBING ALL THAT
YOU HAVE DONE AND ESTABLISHED
BY DOING THE EXPERIMENT.
208
Lab 4/5 report
Introduction: Discuss/Connect the
following topics: Light properties,
waves, wavelength, electromagnetic
spectrum and the differences
between the energies, Spectral lines
of energies.
PROCEDURE : there are three parts
209
OBSERVATIONS: Data table, graph, rope
measurements, data table from 3rd part.
CONCLUSION – Discuss how elements
are identified through the use of spectral
lines of colors, how does this help us in
establishing what is in stars.
210
DOPPLER EFFECT
You must wonder how a police
officer can detect how fast a
car is going. Perhaps you have
not gone into his car and
noticed that his has a Doppler
gun among his other
instruments. The Doppler gun
does not shoot out anything
that can be seen. They shoot
out energy waves (radio waves).
211
By judging the time/wave
patterns from the gun to an
object traveling ahead back to
the gun it is possible to say
whether the object is coming
towards or away from the gun
and how fast it is moving!
212
When a car is coming towards the
Doppler gun the waves get
crunched up as they bounce back
from the car towards the gun.
When the car is going away the
waves are spread apart.
213
By looking at the differences
in the wavelength (spaces
between the crests), it is
possible to judge the speed and
direction of the car.
Frequencies increase as the car
approaches the gun and vice
versa if the car is going away.
214
In terms of light energy, when an
object that is emitting light
approaches another object, the
object that is being approached would
experience higher frequency light
energies. Remember that light is made
up of six distinct frequencies. The
blue end has more frequency than the
red end in the spectrum of light.
(ROYGBV) .
215
If an object that is giving out light
approaches you at great speed you
would see more blue end energies
through a spectroscope as the
frequencies are crunched up. This is
the blue shift which means that the
spectrum of light coming towards
you would show a shift towards the
blue end of the spectrum.
216
Since the waves are
crunched up and show
less wavelength and more
frequency! More
frequency means the blue
end of the spectrum of
light.
217
Similarly if a star (an object that is giving
off light energy) is giving off light and is
going away from you, then what you
would see through a spectroscope would
be a shift towards the red end of the
spectrum. Since the wavelengths would
be more and there would be less
frequencies.
218
DOPPLER EFFECT.
The object in the smallest circle in
the picture is approaching a point
and as it comes closer the waves get
closer and as it goes away the
opposite happens. THIS IS THE
DOPPLER EFFECT.
In terms of stars, when studying
their spectrum there is only a red
shift indicating that the light energy
waves coming from stars are all
showing large wavelength and less
frequency, and thus the stars are
moving away.
219
WHEN STARS WERE BORN
When you consider that all light
giving objects are moving away
from each other and away from a
certain point in space, it must be
concluded that something must
have happened to produce this
motion away from that point.
220
Scientists have put forward the idea that
it was a really ‘big bang’ that could have
started this process. I f there was a big
bang then the blasted stuff must be visible
at the outer edges of the universe. This
has been confirmed by the radiowaves that
are present at the outer edges of universe
moving outward. The Doppler effect thus
confirms the ‘Big Bang’!
221
THE SPECTRUM OF STARS
222
By looking at the spaces
between the color lines in
the spectrum it is
possible to say what kind
of elements are in stars.
223
It is also possible to see the
amount of red shift there is
in the spectrum, and thus
show how far away it is and
what speed it is traveling
away from us.

224
WHAT DID WE FIND OUT SO FAR? WHERE ARE WE
HEADED?
Matter is made up of elements
Light is energy, it moves in a wave
and it’s included in the midst of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a
list of energies arranged according
to their frequencies.
225
TWINKLE TWINKLE LITTLE STAR, HOW I WONDER WHAT YOU
ARE, UP ABOVE THE SKIES SO BRIGHT, LIKE A DIAMOND IN THE
SKY
Just like the nursery rhyme says we often
wonder what those little points of light
are. In the next few weeks we are going
to try and find some answer to some of
our questions about stars, and increase
our wonder about them! Remember we
understand so much about them, not
because we are able to go to a star, but
because of the light that comes from
stars..
226
WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?
Where do elements come from?
How do elements form?
How do elements form
everything we see or don’t see
around us?
227
The only information we get
from stars is in the form of
light or other energies. This
is of great significance when
we consider the enormous
distances between the stars
and earth.
228
The nearest star is our sun and it is 150
million kilometers away from us. It
takes light 8 minutes to reach us from
the sun, traveling at 300,000km/sec.
The nearest star, other than the sun is
called Proxima Centauri (meaning near
to the sun) Light would take 2 ½ years
to get to earth traveling at 300,000
km/sec!
229
The amount of distance traveled
by light in one year would be
known as “one light year”.
Although this is the case with
light energy, and we are mindful
of the fact that it takes ‘time’ for
the information about stars to
get to us, ‘light’ is the only
“solid” source of information
coming to us.
230
MORE ABT THE LAST TOPIC
When the light from stars are
studied through a sophisticated
spectroscope it is possible to tell
what elements are found on these
stars. We can also establish by the
elements present on the stars what
stage in their life they are. In any
case it is safe to conclude that the
same elements that we are made of
are made on stars.
231
Chapter 10
232
HOW DO STARS MAKE ELEMENTS?
In order to answer this question you
need to understand nuclear radiation
and reactions. What is an element?
An element is a substance that is
made of only one kind of atom, like
gold which is made up of parts that
look and feel the same. These parts
are called gold atoms. Cobalt is
another one of these elements, but it
is naturally radioactive.
233
Marie Curie the discoverer of
radioactivity stated that to be
radioactive an element’s atoms are
giving off particles and energy
naturally. These particles are
extremely dangerous. The particles
are called Alpha and Beta. The
energy that is given off is known as
gamma rays.
234
An element is called naturally
radioactive when it
spontaneously gives off parts of
its nucleus. Each nucleus of
cobalt atoms contain 27 protons
and 32 neutrons, however when
cobalt looses either an alpha,
beta, and gamma rays, it changes
to another element.
235
An alpha particle is made of 2
protons and 2 neutrons, so when
each atoms gives up an alpha
particle it is giving away parts of
its nucleus. If the proton number
changes then it becomes a new
element.
236
In fact Cobalt looses an alpha
particle and becomes Zinc!
Check your periodic table and
see whether this is true. Zinc
has 25 protons and Cobalt had
27 protons.
237
Carbon – 14 which is a
radioactive element found in
our bodies changes into
Nitrogen – 12, this change
makes it possible for us to
tell how old a ‘mummy’ is by
studying the amount of
carbon and nitrogen there is
in the body after death!
238
HOW FAR WILL THE RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES
AND ENERGY TRAVEL?
239
240
RADIOACTIVITY AND CHANGING ELEMENTS.
When radioactive elements
loose alpha particles they
change into other elements.
However, there is a rate at
which they do this.
241
The time in which half of the
given material of radioactive
material changes is called halflife.
242
If we have 100 grams of
carbon-14, in about 5000
years half of it or 50 grams
of the C-14 would have
changed into another
element (e.g. Nitrogen – 12)
243
All living things have C-14 in
them. When they die the C-14
in them starts changing into
N-12. No new Carbon 14 will
be added to the body.
244
If for example, we find that
there is exactly 50 g of C 14
and and 50 g of N 12 in a
certain ‘mummy’ in Egypt, then
it is possible to ascertain that
the ‘mummy’ is about 5,270 yrs.
245
This is due to the fact that one
half life (since the ratio
between the two elements in
the ‘mummy’ is exactly half) has
gone by and the half life of C 14
is 5270 yrs! This is how ancient
objects are dated. It is called
Radioactive dating!
246
All radioactive elements have half
lives. Some have very large half
lives (Plutonium has a half life of 3
billion years) There are some that
have a half life less than a small
part of a second! Nevertheless, it is
possible to measure the half-lives
of radioactive elements.
247
STARS ARE COOKING!
SO HOW DO STARS MAKE ELEMENTS?
IN ORDER TO ANSWER THIS
QUESTION WE NEED TO
UNDERSTAND TWO KINDS OF
NUCLEAR REACTIONS IN WHICH
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS ARE USED.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF NUCLEAR
REACTIONS. ONE IS NUCLEAR
FISSION AND WE WILL DISCUSS
THAT FIRST.
248
NUCLEAR FISSION IS A NUCLEAR
REACTION IN WHICH THE NUCLEUS OF
THE ATOM THAT TAKES PART IN THE
REACTION SPLITS APART. THE
ELECTRONS ARE TOO SMALL AND DO NOT
EFFECT THE OUTCOME. IT IS THE
PROTONS AND NEUTRONS IN THE
NUCLEUS THAT TAKE PART IN THE
REACTION.
249
WHEN A NUCLEAR FISSION
DEVICE WAS EXPLODED OVER
HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI,
JAPAN IN THE 1940’s, THE
JAPANESE SURRENDERED. JAPAN
GAVE UP WHEN THEY WERE
SUBJECTED TO SUCH
DEVASTATION. A 10 MILE RADIUS
IN NAGASAKI WAS FLATTENED.
NOTHING REMAINED STANDING
IN THIS AREA.
250
251
“COOKING” STARS
Beyond the 10 mile radius,
those who survived had to
deal with the radioactive
dust from the mushroom
cloud of dust that was
tossed up from the 10 mile
radius at ground zero.
252
Within the 10 mile radius what
someone on ground zero area would
experience is energy (RADIATION)
THAT TRAVELS THE FASTEST
(300,000 km/sec). THEN COMES
THE TREMENDOUS SOUND
BLAST(Due to the enormous
amounts of air that is shoved out of
the way), AND FINALLY THE PIECES
OF BUILDINGS, VEHICLES, ETC. !!
HOW DOES SUCH A RELEASE OF
ENERGY OCCUR?
253
IN A NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION A
NEUTRON IS SHOT AT A NUCLEAR
FISSIONABLE MATERIAL (URANIUM)
AND EACH ATOM OF URANIUM
SPLITS INTO TWO PARTS. A BARIUM
ATOM AND KRYPTON ATOM PART
AND TWO PROTONS. ONE OF THESE
PROTONS MAY CHANGE INTO
ENERGY. THIS SEEMS LIKE JUST TOO
LITTLE TO CAUSE ANY DAMAGE. AS A
PROTON IS SMALLER THAN AN
ATOM!
254
THE NUCLEAR BLAST
THIS IS WHERE EINSTEIN’S
EQUATION EXPLAINS WHAT
HAPPENS. IN HIS EQUATION E=MC2
, THE ‘E’ STANDS FOR ENERGY, ‘M’
FOR MASS AND ‘C’ FOR THE SPEED
OF LIGHT (300,000 km/sec). EVEN
THE MASS OF A PROTON BECOMES
SIGNIFICANT WHEN IT IS
MULTIPLIED BY THE SQUARE OF THE
SPEED OF LIGHT.
255
WHICH IS 300,000 X 300,000
= 900,000,000,000 X ONE
PROTON’S MASS!
THIS IS WHY THE BOMB
DROPPED OVER NAGASAKI
BECOMES SIGNIFICANTLY
POWERFUL SINCE IT WEIGHED
ABOUT ONE KILOGRAM.
256
CAN YOU IMAGINE HOW MUCH
ENERGY WAS RELEASED DURING
THAT ONE INSTANT WHEN THE
REACTION STARTED AND PROTONS
HIT OTHER URANIUM ATOMS?
THE CHAIN REACTION STARTED
AND IN ALMOST AN INSTANT ONE
KILOGRAM OF MASS WAS
CONVERTED INTO A TREMENDOUS
AMOUNT OF ENERGY CAUSING THE
DESTRUCTION.
257
WHAT ABT COOKING STARS?!!
THE REACTION THAT TAKES
PLACE ON STARS IS SOMETHING
CALLED A NUCLEAR FUSION
REACTION. IN A NUCLEAR
FUSION REACTION THE NUCLEUS
OF TWO ATOMS ARE FUSED
TOGETHER.
258
IN ORDER FOR THIS TO HAPPEN
THERE HAS TO BE ENOUGH HEAT AND
PRESSURE TO CREATE THE
TEMPERATURE AND OTHER
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR
FUSION TO OCCUR. SEVERAL
NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS
WOULD BE REQUIRED TO BRING
ABOUT THE HEAR REQUIRED FOR
FUSION OF ATOMS. THERE IS A
TREMENDOUS RELEASE OF ENERGY
WHEN FUSING TAKES PLACE.
259
MORE MATTER IS CONVERTED
INTO ENERGY IN A NUCLEAR
FUSION REACTION, THAN IN A
NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION.
THIS IS WHY STARS ‘SHINE’ AS
THEY ARE RELEASING
TREMENDOUS AMOUNTS OF
ENERGY, AND AT THE SAME TIME
NEW ELEMENTS ARE BEING
CREATED.!
260
NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION
IN A NUCLEAR
FUSION REACTION
ATOMS FUSE OR JOIN
TOGETHER TO FORM
HEAVIER ATOMS.
IN THIS PICTURE
ATOMS OF HYDROGEN
‘D’ AND ‘T’ JOIN TO
FORM ONE NEW
HELIUM ATOM AND A
SPARE NEUTRON.
261
IN A STAR THE TEMPERATURE
AND PRESSURE IS
UNIMAGINABLE AND THEREFORE
THE HELIUM COULD START
FUSING TO FORM HEAVIER
ATOMS.
THIS FORMATION OF NEW ATOMS
OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS WILL
CONTINUE TILL IRON STARS TO
FORM IN THE CORE OF A STAR.
262
Chapter 11
263
FUSING STARS!
WHAT HAPPENS TO A STAR
WHEN FUSION STARTS IS THAT
NEW ELEMENTS START
FORMING.
INITIALLY THE HYDROGEN
ATOMS FUSE TO FORM HELIUM.
HYDROGEN IS THE MOST
ABUNDANT ELEMENT IN THE
UNIVERSE AND IS FOUND
EVERYWHERE.
264
WHEN A STAR IS BORN THE HYDROGEN
AND OTHER ELEMENTS THAT HAVE
COME TOGETHER START TO CRASH
INTO EACH OTHER AT GREAT SPEED
AND THROUGH FRICTION A
TREMENDOUS AMOUNT OF HEAT IS
PRODUCED AND NUCLEAR FISSION
STARTS.
THIS IN TURN STARTS FUSION
REACTIONS. HYDROGEN ATOMS
WHICH HAVE ONLY ONE PROTON IN ITS
NUCLEUS FUSES WITH ANOTHER
HYDROGEN ATOM AND MAKES A NEW
ATOM WITH TWO PROTONS IN ITS
265
NUCLEUS.
THIS ATOM IS NO LONGER
HYDROGEN. THE HYDROGEN FUSED
TO FORM HELIUM.
THE ENERGY RELEASED IN THIS
FUSION REACTION IS MUCH MORE
THAN FISSION REACTIONS. DURING
ITS LIFE THE STAR WILL START TO
FUSE NUMEROUS AMOUNTS OF
ELEMENTS. OUR YELLOW DWARF
STAR THE SUN DOES HAVE MORE
HELIUM AND THEREFORE BURNS
WITH A YELLOW COLOR.
266
STARS AND BLACK HOLES
STARS VARY IN SIZE, COLOR, AND
TEMPERATURE.
A STAR’S COLOR IS RELATED TO
ITS INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
TEMPERATURE.
YOU CAN TELL HOW OLD A STAR IS
BY LOOKING AT THE COLOR OF
THE STAR.
RED, YELLOW, BLUE, AND WHITE
ARE THE FOUR STAR COLORS .
267
RED STARS HAVE THE LEAST TOTAL
TEMPERATURE COMPARED TO THE REST.
HOWEVER THEY ARE USUALLY THE
OLDEST STARS.
THE YELLOW, BLUE AND WHITE STARS
ARE PROGRESSIVELY HOTTER! WHITE
IS THE HOTTEST STAR. BLUE STARS ARE
USUALLY YOUNG STARS THAT HAVE A
LOT OF HYDROGEN AND HAVE JUST
STARTED FUSION REACTIONS. THEY
HAVE MORE HYDROGEN ATOMS THAN
ANY OTHER KIND OF ELEMENT IN THEM.
268
YELLOW STARS LIKE OUR SUN ARE
FUSING HELIUM. THE HYDROGEN
THAT WAS IN IT, WAS USED TO MAKE
MORE HELIUM.
THE RED STARS ARE IN THE FINAL
STAGES OF THEIR LIVES, AND HAVE
MORE OF THE ELEMENT IRON IN
THEIR CORES. THIS SETS THE STAGE
FOR A NOVA, DUE TO THE IMMENSE
PULL OF GRAVITY DUE TO THE IRON
MASS IN THE CORE.
269
A SMALL YELLOW STAR LIKE OUR SUN
WOULD EXPAND, WHEN ITS CORE
BECOMES IRON. IT DOES NOT HAVE AS
MUCH MASS AS A LARGER STAR LIKE
‘BETELGEUSE’ IN THE ORION
CONSTELLATION. IT WILL LOOSE ITS
MATERIAL IN A TIMID NOVA BY
EXPANDING AND LEAVING A DENSE
CENTER, A WHITE DWARF STAR.
270
271
WHEN OUR YELLOW STAR TURNS RED!
272
WHERE STARS ARE BORN AND GROW
A STAR IS BORN IN A PLACE WHERE
THERE IS A LOT OF MASS. THERE ARE
MANY PLACES IN THE UNIVERSE
WHERE THERE IS A LOT OF MASS.
IN THE CONSTELLATION ORION THERE
IS A PLACE CALLED THE ORION’S
NEBULA. IN SUCH A PLACE THE MASS IS
SUBJECTED TO FORCES THAT CRUSH IT
TOGETHER. THIS IS DUE TO GRAVITY
THAT DEPENDS ON THE MASS THAT IS
THERE.
273
WHEN THERE IS ENOUGH HEAT
AND PRESSURE THERE WILL BE A
SUDDEN STARTING OF THE
ENGINES. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
SUCH AS NUCLEAR FUSION
REACTIONS RESULT IN A
TREMENDOUS RELEASE OF LIGHT
ENERGY. THIS IS WHEN A STAR IS
BORN.
274
AS HYDROGEN FUSES WITH OTHER ATOMS,
NEW ELEMENTS ARE COOKED ON THE STARS.
WHEN EVER A HYDROGEN ATOM FUSES WITH
ANOTHER, A NEW ATOM WITH DOUBLE THE
NUMBER OF PROTONS IN ITS NUCLEUS IS
FORMED.
SINCE PROTON NUMBER DETERMINES THE
KIND OF ATOM (ELEMENT) THAT IS FORMED,
STARS DO COOK ELEMENTS! THE STARS
CHANGE COLOR. A MIDDLE AGED YELLOW
STAR LIKE OUR SUN HAS HELIUM.. THEN AS
THE MORE HEAVIER ELEMENTS ARE FORMED,
THE STAR CONTINUES TO CHANGE COLOR
UNTIL IRON FORMS, AND TURNS INTO A RED
COLOR STAR. THIS SIGNALS THE END OF A
STARS LIFE WHEN A NOVA COULD HAPPEN.
275
LIVES OF STARS
ONLY THE CORE OF THE YELLOW
STAR WOULD REMAIN, AFTER THIS
EXPANSION.
IN THE CASE OF A LARGE RED
GIANT ITS MASSIVE IRON CORES
STARTS TO ATTRACT EVEN THE
STARS OUTER RIM INWARDS IN AN
IMPLOSION.
276
THIS IMPLOSION WOULD CAUSE
SUCH A SQUEEZE THAT EVEN THE
ATOMS THAT MAKE UP THE STAR
WILL LOOSES ITS STRUCTURE AND
ELECTRONS AND PROTONS ARE
RIPPED AWAY, LEAVING A DENSE
CLUMP OF NEUTRONS – A
NEUTRON STAR.
277
IN AN EVEN BIGGER STAR IT IS
POSSIBLE THAT THE CRUSHING
GRAVITATION PULL OF ALL THE
MASS WOULD KEEP EVEN LIGHT
FROM ESCAPING FROM ITS
CLUTCHES AND A BLACK HOLE
WOULD FORM. SUCH EVENTS ARE
SAID TO HAVE OCCURRED IN THE
CENTER OF GALAXIES. THIS IS THE
FORCE THAT CAN KEEP BILLIONS OF
STARS ROTATING AROUND IT,
FORMING A GALAXY OF STARS!
278
STAGES OF A STAR’S LIFE.
IN AN EXTREMELY LARGE RED GIANT STAR THE RESULTING
SUPERNOVA WOULD SPREAD THE MATTER THAT WAS IN THE STAR
INTO THE UNIVERSE.
A LARGE SUPER RED GIANT WOULD CAUSE AN EVEN MORE
SIGNIFICANT IMPLOSION (WHICH IS AN EXPLOSION THAT GOES
INWARD) AND THE RESULTING MATTER BECOMES SO DENSE
THAT IT WOULD NOT ALLOW EVEN LIGHT TO ESCAPE FROM ITS
PULL.
THIS WOULD RESULT IN THE FORMATION OF A BLACK HOLE.
BLACK HOLES ARE NOT VISIBLE BUT THE MATTER THAT IS BEING
PULLED INTO IT CAN BE RECORDED.
BETELGEUSE IN THE ORION CONSTELLATION IS A PRIME
CANDIDATE FOR THIS KIND OF A SITUATION. FOR ALL WE KNOW
BY NOW IT HAS OCCURRED AND WE ARE STILL WAITING FOR THE
LIGHT FROM THAT SUPERNOVA TO REACH US.
ORION ALSO HAS A NEBULA WHERE YOUNG STARS HAVE JUST
BEGUN TO LIGHT UP!
279
THE CONSTELLATION ORION HAS IN ITS MIDST,
A PLACE WHERE STARS CAN BE BORN! ITS CALLED
THE ORION’S NEBULA.
280
281
NEBULA’S ARE PLACES WHERE THERE IS
ENOUGH MATERIAL TO START A STAR.
282
YOUNG STARS.
YOUNG STARS THAT
ARE ALMOST BLUE
IN COLOR. THIS IS
DUE TO THE STAR
HAVING A LOT OF
HYDROGEN IN
THEM.
283
A MIDDLE AGED STAR!
THE MIDDLE AGED
STAR WHICH HAS A
YELLOWISH RED
TINGE IS BURNING
ITS HELIUM
CONTENT. ALL ITS
HYDROGEN HAS
BEEN USED UP AND
IT CAN ONLY USE
ITS HELIUM MASS.
284
285
286
WHAT DID WE SEE TILL NOW?
For your Journal: If you
travel from earth into outer
space what might you pass
first? Next? How do you
account for day and night?
Summer and Winter? Why
are kilometers often
inadequate for measuring
distances in space? What do
you use in their place?
287
WHAT WE DID TILL NOW AND WHERE
WE ARE GOING………
These are the ideas we know now:
1. Stars have elements, 2. Stars
send out elements when they die,
like what is going on in the picture
of 1996AA-C supernova in the
next slide!
288
SUPERNOVA 1196AA.C
289
Could these elements that are sent
out by stars get together and form
earth like planets and new stars.
A star is like a phoenix (from
mythology) that can rise from its own
ashes! What could help in bringing
these elements come together to
form planets and stars?
290
Chapter 12
291
In order to understand
ARISTOTLE
how matter that was
384-322BC
thrown out by stars could
form planets, you must
consider what ‘motion’ is.
Ancient greek
philosophers, 3000 years
ago, like Aristotle,
Ptolemy, Aristarchus, and
Eratosthenes, studied
motion.
292
What puzzled them was how anything
could move in space, what makes
anything move, could anything move on
its own, and what exactly is motion? They
realized the importance of trying to
understand motion. Aristotle proposed
the idea that things that did not have life
could not really move if there was no
‘force’ used. This set in motion 2000 years
of misconception about motion.
293
AN IDEA!
Folks at that time came
up with the idea that a
man called ‘Atlas was
actually carrying earth
on his shoulder, and if
you tickled his armpits
earth would fall into the
eternal pit! Someone
even suggested that if
he was given a long
enough lever he could
move earth himself! Do
you know who that was?
294
For about 2000 years people followed the ideas
of Aristotle and Ptolemy until Copernicus
arrived into the arena of science. He lived at a
time that was beginning to be called the
Renaissance when a lot of ideas were being
hatched and old beliefs were being changed.
Copernicus put forward the idea that the sun
was the center of the solar system and the earth
was a planet traveling around it.
“If earth were moving where could heaven and
hell be? Where would ‘Atlas’ be, now that he had
no job!?” These were some questions that people
may have asked during that time.
295
NICHOLAS COPERNICUS(1473-1543
296
To imagine an idea that was out of
the ordinary, was frightening, even
today. It would take more than just
providing proof to make such changes
in ideas. Copernicus would not
publish his ideas and got a book that
had all his ideas given to him when he
was on his death bed. He never went
against the wishes of the people of
the day.
297
Galileo provided the mathematical
and conceptual proof for the ideas
that Copernicus presented. The first
idea he resolved was that it was
possible to have motion without
force. He had already used a
telescope that he built himself and
seen the moons of Jupiter. He had to
explain what made these moons and
Jupiter itself to move by themselves
298
It is important to note that since
Copernicus, the earth centered
universe idea has been rejected.
Shortly after Galileo’s time people
such as Johannes Kepler and Tycho
Brahe, had already established a lot
about the night sky and the
movements of the planets.
299
Galileo’s first task was to prove
that it is possible to have motion
without force. The words ‘motion’,
‘mass’, and ‘force’ will take on a
new meaning by the time we see
what Galileo and Newton did for
us regarding the study of motion.
The three concepts are related.
Motion is universal, so therefore it
occurs everywhere. There is
nothing that does not move. This is
not a generalized notion.
300
Where would there be no
motion at all?
301
When you are sitting at your table on
your chair, are you moving? Obviously
not!?? Actually you are, if you
consider the billions of atoms that
you are made up off that have
electrons that buzz around the
nucleus at close to 300,000 km/sec.
Also, if you consider that you are on
the earth that revolves at 30 m/sec
and goes around the sun at 330,000
km/hr, you are moving!!
302
GALILEO SEES THE LIGHT!
THIS HEADING COULD
PROBABLY HAVE BEEN THE
HEADLINES FOR THAT DAY
WHEN GALILEO
DISCOVERED THAT THERE
WERE OTHER SATELLITES
REVOLVING AROUND
OTHER PLANETS.
GALILEO WOULD HAVE
LOOKED OUT AT THE
STARS EXACTLY AS SHOWN
IN THE PICTURE. HE BUILT
THE TELESCOPE HIMSELF.
THE PAPER SHOWN
ALONGSIDE, IS IN HIS
OWN HAND AND SHOWS
WHAT HE HAD NOTED
DOWN WHEN HE SAW THE
FOUR MOONS OF THE
PLANET JUPITER..
303
THE ENTIRE SOLAR SYSTEM REVOLVES AROUND THE
MILKY WAY GALAXY’S CORE . SINCE THE ‘BIG BANG’
THE GALAXY ITSELF IS MOVING AWAY FROM SOME
POINT IN SPACE AT CLOSE TO THE SPEED OF LIGHT!
IF THIS IS THE CASE THEN THERE IS NOTHING THAT
IS NOT MOVING!
HOWEVER, THERE IS ONE PLACE WHERE THERE
WOULD NOT BE ANY MOTION. THAT IS A PLACE
WHERE THE TEMPERATURE IS EXTREMELY LOW.
304
THIS TEMPERATURE MUST BE MEASURED IN A
SPECIAL SCALE, (WHICH HAPPENS TO BE THE
STANDARD UNIT OF MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE) THE KELVIN SCALE. IN OTHER
WORDS THE PLACE THAT IS SUBJECTED TO 0
KELVIN OR –273O CELSIUS WOULD HAVE
NOTHING MOVING. INCLUDING THE
ELECTRON THAT IS ZIPPING AROUND THE
NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM. AT 0 KELVIN THE
ELECTRON WOULD NO LONGER BE ABLE TO
RESIST THE PULL OF THE NUCLEUS AND IT
WILL BE PULLED INTO THE NUCLEUS. THIS
WOULD RESULT IN THE ATOM LOOSING ITS
SPACE BETWEEN THE NUCLEUS AND THE
ELECTRONS.
305
THIS WOULD MEAN THAT THE ENTIRE
ATOM WOULD LOOSE ALL ITS VOLUME
AND BE REDUCED TO A MINISCULE
PORTION OF ITS ORIGINAL SIZE. IN
OTHER WORDS IF YOU WERE TO TAKE A
MOUNTAIN AND REDUCE ITS
TEMPERATURE TO 0 KELVIN THEN IT
WOULD BE REDUCED TO A
MICROSCOPIC SIZE!
306
WHAT DOES THIS ALL MEAN? IT IS
CLEAR THAT MOTION IS REALLY VERY
NECESSARY TO IMAGINE OUR
UNIVERSE THE WAY IT IS. WITHOUT
MOTION THE UNIVERSE WOULD LOOK
AND FEEL VERY STRANGE?!??
NEXT YOU NEED TO CONSIDER THAT
MOTION IS RELATIVE.
307
THIS MEANS THAT IF YOU WERE TO SEE A
BIRD FLY IN THE SKY AND NOTICE AT THE
SAME TIME A PLANE THAT FLIES ABOVE THE
CLOUDS IT IS POSSIBLE TO THINK THAT THE
BIRD IS FLYING FASTER THAN THE PLANE. IT
SEEMS THAT WAY BECAUSE THERE IS NO
REFERENCE POINT BEYOND THE PLANE TO
COMPARE ITS MOTION TO, AS OPPOSED TO
THE BIRD THAT HAS ALL THE TREES AND
OTHER MATERIAL THAT IS ON THE GROUND
THAT WE CAN COMPARE THE BIRD’S FLIGHT
TO.
308
THEREFORE MOTION MUST BE RELATED
TO A BACKGROUND OR REFERENCE
POINT, TO ACTUALLY KNOW THAT
MOVEMENT IS TAKING PLACE.! THE
EARTH IS MOVING BUT THIS IS
IMPOSSIBLE TO SEE TILL IT PASSES
CLOSE TO ANOTHER PLANET.
IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO
COMMUNICATE WHAT YOU KNOW
ABOUT MOTION WITHOUT
MEASUREMENT. THE SIMPLEST WAY TO
MEASURE MOTION IS TO USE SPEED.
309
HOW FAST ARE WE MOVING?
IF YOU CAN FIND OUT
WHAT THE SPEED OF
EARTH’S ORBIT AROUND
THE SUN, THEN YOU
DESERVE CREDIT!
HOW FAST DOES A
GALAXY MOVE?
IS OUR GALAXY
MOVING?
IF OUR GALAXY IS
MOVING THEN WE MUST
BE MOVING TOO WITH
IT!
310
SPEED IS DISTANCE DIVIDED BY TIME.
THEREFORE SPEED IS A RATE. A RATE IS ANY
QUANTITY DIVIDED BY TIME. BY VIRTUE OF
BEING DIVIDED BY TIME ANY PRODUCT
BECOMES A RATE.
LAB 6 – IN THE PHYSICS 500 LAB CALCULATE
THE SPEED FOR THREE DIFFERENT RACES.
EACH RACE MUST BE RUN THREE TIMES SO
WE CAN GET AN AVERAGE SPEED. THE DATA
TABLE WILL LOOK LIKE THIS:
RACE 1 –
TRIAL DIST TIME
SPEED
1
26m 5sec
26/5 = 5.1m/s
2
26m 4sec
26/4 = 6.2m/s etc.
etc….
Avg. spd?
311
IN THE NEXT PART OF THE SAME LAB WE
SHALL STUDY THE SPEED OF DOMINOES KEPT
AT DIFFERENT SPACES FROM EACH OTHER.
THE DATA TABLE WOULD LIKE THIS:
DIST TRL1 TRL2 T3 AVG. SPEED
TIME
D/T
0.5cm 1s 1.5 1.25 1.25s. 5cn/1.25s
1.0cm 2s
2.3 2.5s
1.5cm 3s
ETC…..
IN THIS DATA TABLE THE DISTANCE REFERS
TO THE SPACE BETWEEN THE DOMINOES IN
EACH TRAIL. REPEAT EACH DIST TWICE SO
YOU CAN HAVE AN AVERAGE TIME.
312
INTRO TOPICS:
MOTION (DISCUSS THE TOPIC AND USE NOTES)
MEASURING MOTION – SPEED – DIST/TIME
PROCEDURE – 2 PARTS –
PART 1 PHYSICS 500 – RACES
PART 2 DOMINO SETUP
OBSERVATION – 2 DATA TABLES
GRAPH – DIST / SPEED
X’ /
Y”
CONCLUSION:
A. DEFINITION OF SPEED
B. WHAT EFFECTS THE SPEED OF THE DOMINOES
C. WHAT WAS THE MAXIMUM SPEED FOR THE
DOMINOES
D. WHICH SPACING RESULTED IN THE FASTEST
SPEED? WHY?
313
Moving from measuring motion to trying to understand how
motion could occur without the use of force is a natural step.
MOVING FROM MEASURING MOTION TO TRYING TO
UNDERSTAND HOW MOTION COULD OCCUR WITHOUT THE
USE OF FORCE IS A NATURAL STEP.
ALTHOUGH COPERNICUS HAD GIVEN US THE VIEW THAT
THE EARTH WAS NOT THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. IT
WAS NOT UNTIL GALILEO'S THAT THIS WAS CONSIDERED
POSSIBLE. THE GREATEST DILEMMA SINCE THE DAYS OF
ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY WAS THAT THE EARTH COULD
NOT BE MOVING AS IT WOULD REQUIRE AN ENORMOUS
AMOUNT OF FORCE TO ACCOMPLISH. AS SOON AS THIS
ISSUE WAS RESOLVED IT WAS POSSIBLE TO IMAGINE
EARTH MOVING.
GALILEO SET OUT TO PROVE THAT IT WAS NOT NECESSARY
TO HAVE FORCE APPLIED CONSTANTLY TO HAVE MOTION
OCCUR , ONCE MOTION HAD BEGUN.
HE MADE SEVERAL RAMPS ON WHICH HE STUDIED AND
MEASURED MOTION. THIS RAMP WAS SHAPED LIKE A
CURVED SEMICIRCLE. IF A METAL BALL WAS RELEASED AT
THE TOP OF THIS SMOOTH RAMP IT COULD BE SEEN THAT
THE BALL WOULD TRAVEL TO THE OPPOSITE END AND
REACH THE SAME HEIGHT ON THE OTHER SIDE. IF YOU
WERE TO EXTEND THE SIZE OF THE RAMP TO BE
314
SUCCESSFULLY LONGER IT WOULD STILL HAVE THE SAME
IF THE RAMP WERE STRETCHED TO INFINITY THEN THAT
BALL WOULD CONTINUE MOVING AT THE SAME SPEED THAT
IT STARTED WITH, UNLESS IT COMES INTO CONTACT WITH
ANOTHER FORCE. IN OTHER WORDS THE BALL WOULD KEEP
MOVING FOREVER.
THUS EVEN THE EARTH DOES NOT NEED ANY FORCE TO
KEEP IT MOVING ONCE IT HAS STARTED TO MOVE. GALILEO
WAS ABLE TO PROVIDE EXPERIMENTAL AND VISUAL PROOF
THAT THIS WAS HAPPENING. HOWEVER HE WAS NOT ABLE
TO EXPLAIN WHY THIS PHENOMENON WAS TRUE. IT TOOK
THE GENIUS OF ISAAC NEWTON TO EXPLAIN WHY THIS
HAPPENS.
INERTIA IS A CONCEPT THAT DID NOT EXIST TILL NEWTON.
THAT AN OBJECT COULD KEEP MOVING FOREVER IN SPACE
WITH NO FRICTIONAL FORCES OR ANY OTHER FORCE WAS
PROVED BEYOND DOUBT BY GALILEO BUT WHAT MAKES AN
OBJECT DO THIS?
IF YOU CONSIDER THE MANY ACTIVITIES WE DID IN CLASS
I.E. THE RULER AND THE FINGER CATCH, THE COIN AND
CARD TRICK, THE HOOP AND COIN TRICK, THE
TABLECLOTH AND CHINA TRICK, ALL POINT TO THE
EXISTENCE OF INERTIA WHICH IS THE ABILITY OF
ANYTHING WITH MASS TO REMAIN AT REST OR KEEP
MOVING WHEN NO OTHER FORCE IS APPLIED.
315
SPACE MOVEMENT
THERE IS NOTHING PUSHING THE ASTRONAUTS OR THE
SPACE STATIONS, THEY WILL KEEP MOVING UNTIL
ANOTHER FORCE COMES INTO CONTACT WITH IT. IN
OTHER WORDS THERE IS NO NEED TO KEEP GIVING
FORCE TO AN OBJECT THAT IS ALREADY MOVING WHEN
THERE IS NO OTHER FORCE. THE OBJECT WILL MOVE IN
A STRAIGHT LINE FOREVER! THANK GOODNESS FOR
GRAVITY!
316
LAB 7
IN THIS LAB WE ARE DOING A SET OF SIX
ACTIVITIES TO INVESTIGATE FORCES.
AT THE END OF THE SIX ACTIVITIES A DATA
TABLE MUST BE MADE, LISTING THE
STATION, THE OBSERVATIONS, AND THE
FORCES THAT WERE NOTICED AT EACH
ACTIVITY STATION.
THE CONCLUSION QUESTIONS TO THE LAB
WERE
A) WHAT FORCES WERE IN PLAY AT EACH
STATION
B) WAS THERE ONLY ONE FORCE ACTING AT
ANY STATION THAT YOU WERE AT.
317
ACCELERATION!
WHEN GALILEO WENT TO THE TOWER OF PISA AND
DROPPED TWO IRON BALLS, ONE WHICH WAS MUCH
BIGGER THAN THE OTHER, HE DID NOT INTEND TO
SHOW THAT THEY BOTH WOULD REACH THE GROUND
AT THE SAME TIME. ON THE OTHER HAND HE WAS
TRYING TO SHOW THAT THEY WOULD BOTH BE
ACCELERATING TOWARDS THE GROUND AT THE SAME
RATE.
IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND WHAT HE WAS TRYING TO
PROPOSE, THE CONCEPT OF ACCELERATION MUST BE
CLEAR.
ACCELERATION IS THE CHANGE IN SPEED IN A GIVEN
PERIOD OF TIME. BUT IT IS ALSO A RATE OF A RATE:
ACC = SPEED/TIME = D/T/T= m/s/s WHENEVER YOU
DIVIDE ANY QUANTITY BY TIME YOU HAVE A RATE. SO
WHEN ACCELERATION IS CALCULATED YOU ARE
DIVIDING SPEED (WHICH IS A RATE) BY TIME,
THEREFORE ACCELERATION IS A RATE OF A RATE.
318
1ST LAW OF NEWTON TRIES TO EXPLAIN HOW MOTION
COULD OCCUR WITHOUT FORCE.
JUST AS GALILEO HAD PREDICTED.
NEWTON’S 1ST LAW HOWEVER GAVE THE REASON TO WHY
MOTION WITHOUT FORCE IS POSSIBLE.
INERTIA IS THE ABILITY OF OBJECTS WITH MASS TO KEEP
IN MOTION OR REMAIN AT REST, UNLESS ACTED UPON BY
ANOTHER FORCE. IN THIS DEFINITION IT IS QUITE CLEAR
THAT IS IS INERTIA (THAT ABILITY THAT MATTER HAS IF IT
HAS MASS ) THAT ACTUALLY CAUSES MOTION TO OCCUR
WITHOUT CONTINUALLY APPLYING FORCE.
THE WORDS MASS, INERTIA, AND FORCE MUST BE USED IN
ORDER TO UNDERSTAND AND DEFINE NEWTON'S 1ST LAW.
2ND LAW OF MOTION : DESCRIBES WHAT HAPPENS TO
MOTION WHEN FORCE IS APPLIED. THE FIRST
RELATIONSHIP TO UNDERSTAND IS THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN FORCE AND MOTION.
WHEN THERE IS MORE MOTION THERE MUST HAVE BEEN
MORE FORCE APPLIED. FOR EXAMPLE IF YOU PUSH A TOY
CAR WITH A TOUCH OF YOUR FINGER THEN YOU WOULD
FIND IT MOVING JUST A BIT, HOWEVER IF YOU PUSHED
WITH ALL YOUR FINGERS WITH MORE FORCE YOU WOULD
MAKE IT MOVE MUCH FASTER.
319
WHAT NEWTON SAYS…..
320
AND NEWTON SAYS…..!
321
AND NEWTON SAYS…!
322
GO ROCKET GO!
ROCKETS BUILT BY USING
CONSTRUCTION PAPER
AND FILM CANISTERS
WERE DONE TO SHOW THE
3RD LAW OF NEWTON THAT
ALL FORCES ACT IN PAIRS.
THERE IS NO FORCE THAT
IS FOUND BY ITSELF. THUS
WHEN THE FILM CANISTER
WITH THE ALKA SELTZER
TABLET AND THE WATER IS
ENCLOSED THE RESULTING
GAS PRODUCTION CAUSES
THE FORCE TO ACT
DOWNWARDS AND THE
FLOOR PUSHES UP WITH
EQUAL FORCE AND THE
ROCKET GOES UP!
323
HOW CAN WE TELL SOMEONE WHERE
WE ARE IN SPACE?
THE VIDEO IS ABOUT HOW PEOPLE CAME TO USE
LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE AND WHY IT WAS SO
IMPORTANT FOR PEOPLE TO KNOW HOW TO MOVE FROM
ONE END OF THE EARTH TO THE OTHER. UNLESS THERE WAS
A WAY OF MEASURING HOW FAR AND WHERE YOU WERE
GOING IT WOULD BE IMPOSSIBLE TO TRAVEL ANYWHERE
WITH ANY CERTAINTY.
JOHN HARRISON WAS A CARPENTER WITH A SPECIAL
GENIUS FOR UNDERSTANDING HOW TO MEASURE TIME IN A
VERY PRECISE MANNER WITH THE INSTRUMENTS THAT
WERE AVAILABLE TO HIM AT THAT TIME.
BEING ABLE TO MEASURE TIME EXACTLY HELPED IN
ESTABLISHING WHERE YOU WERE IN THE OCEAN BY
LOOKING AT THE TIME AND WHERE THE SUN WAS WHEN
YOU WERE TRYING TO SEE WHERE YOU WERE.
LONGITUDE IS THE LINES GOING EAST AND WEST, AND
LATITUDE IS LINES GOING NORTH AND SOUTH.
YOU CAN EVEN HAVE A CELESTIAL SPHERE AND HAVE LINES
OF LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE ON IT!
324
SUMMING UP.
EVERYTHING IS IN MOTION EXCEPT AT 0 KELVIN.
INSIDE STARS ELEMENTS ARE BEING CREATED.
THESE ELEMENTS ARE CREATED BY FUSION/FISSION
REACTIONS.
STARS UNDERGO NOVA/SUPERNOVAS AND SEND OUT THE
MATERIAL THAT THEY ARE MADE UP OF. WHEN THEY SEND
OUT MATERIAL THE STUFF THAT IS REMAINING BECOMES
NEW SMALLER STARS, FORM MATERIAL THAT COULD
BECOME NEW STARS.
WHEN STARS EXPLODE THEY GO THROUGH A PERIOD OF
IMPLOSION AND THEN EXPLOSIONS
WHEN THEY EXPLODE THEY GO OUTWARD AT A CERTAIN
SPEED. SPEED CAN BE CALCULATED BY DIVIDING DIST BY
TIME.
THE INERTIA THAT THIS MATERIAL HAS DUE TO ITS MASS
ENABLES IT TO KEEP MOVING IN SPACE UNTIL IT COMES
ACROSS SOME OTHER FORCE.
THE MOTION ASSOCIATED WITH THIS MATERIAL THAT IS
COMING OUT OF STARS IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF SPEED
AND ACCELERATION.
325
ACCELERATION DEPENDS ON TWO FACTORS. MASS AND FORCE.
ACCELERATION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO FORCE SO IF
THERE IS MORE FORCE THERE WILL BE MORE ACCELERATION.
SIMILARLY MASS IS INDIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO
ACCELERATION. If THERE IS MORE MASS THERE WILL BE LESS
ACCELERATION.
ALSO THE AMOUNT OF MASS DETERMINES THE AMOUNT OF
INERTIA AND THE GRAVITY. IN OTHER WORDS MORE MASS, MORE
INERTIA, AND MORE GRAVITY.
SPEED IS A RATE THAT MEASURES THE AMOUNT OF DISTANCE
COVERED, AND THE ACCELERATION IS THE AMOUNT SPEED
CHANGES IN A CERTAIN TIME.
CELESTIAL SPHERES AND LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES HELP US
SHOW WHERE THIS MATTER IS IN THE UNIVERSE AND HOW WE
CAN FIND IT.
FORCES ALWAYS ACT IN PAIRS. WHEN THERE IS ONE FORCE THERE
WILL BE AN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE FORCE.
“TANK” ABOUT IT!
IF A MOUSE AND AN ELEPHANT WERE TO COLLIDE WITH YOU IN
SPACE, WHERE ALL THINGS ARE WEIGHTLESS, WHICH ONE WOULD
HURT MORE, THE MOUSE OR THE ELEPHANT? WHY?
NEWTON REALIZED THAT THE SUN PULLS ON THE EARTH WITH THE
FORCE OF GRAVITY AND CAUSES THE EARTH TO MOVE IN ORBIT
AROUND THE SUN. DOES THE EARTH PULL EQUALLY ON THE SUN?
DEFEND YOUR ANSWER.
326
Chapter 13
327
What did you see when you
looked at salt powder through a
microscope?
What did the little cubes
represent?
Crystals are made up of
compounds joining together to
form special 3 - dimensional
shapes.
Compounds themselves are
made up of elements.
328
A lot of crystals together form a
piece of mineral.
Minerals can be pretty, shiny, flaky
and dull.
In the smashed rock dust that you
saw under a microscope there
were three distinct mineral
crystals.
You cannot see the crystal
structure since there were only a
few molecules of compounds
attached together.
329
There many minerals. More than 2000
combinations of elements producing all
different varieties of minerals.
They generally fall into 2 categories. Those
that have silicate in them and those that do
not!
The non-silicate variety of mineral can be
further divided into ,halides, carbonates,
sulfates, oxides,
330
331
WE WILL BE STUDYING THESE MINERALS AND
HOW TO IDENTIFY THEM.
332
MINERALS HAVE MANY CHARACTERISTICS OR
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES THAT MAKE
THEM UNIQUE. EACH ROCK MAY CONTAIN
MANY MINERALS MIXED TOGETHER.
MINERALS ARE USUALLY FOUND IN DEFINITE
CRYSTAL SHAPES. FOR EXAMPLE SALT IS
FOUND TO BE IN CUBED CRYSTALS. SALT OR
HALITE ROCKS ARE COMMON IN CERTAIN
PARTS OF THE WORLD.
333
HARDNESS SCALE
The hardness scale is one of the
methods of identifying minerals.
1.Talc
8. Topaz
2.Gypsum
9. Corundum
3.Calcite
10. Diamond
4.Flourite
5.Apatite
6.Feldspar (orthoclase)
7.Quartz.
334
TEST 1 – COLOR. ALTHOUGH COLOR IS THE EASIEST
TEST TO CONDUCT IT WILL PROBABLY BE THE MOST
UNRELIABLE SINCE THERE MAY BE MANY MINERALS
THAT HAVE THE SAME COLOR. ALSO THERE COULD BE
MINERALS THAT COME IN SEVERAL COLORS. BUT IT IS
A START. YOU CAN NARROW IT DOWN!
TEST 2 – TEXTURE. THE FEEL OF THE MINERAL.
TEST 3 – STREAK. USE A STREAK PLATE TO CONDUCT
THIS TEST. FIRMLY RUB THE MINERAL ON A STREAK
PLATE TO PRODUCE POWDER ON THE PLATE. IF IT HAS
A DARK STREAK IT IS PROBABLY HAS A LOT OF METALS
IN IT.
TEST 4 – LUSTER. THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT THAT
REFLECTS OF THE MINERAL IS A DISTINCTIVE FEATURE
OF THAT MINERAL. IN THE CASE OF SOME THERE IS A
METALLIC LUSTER, AND IN OTHERS GLASSY AND DULL
ETC. DESCRIBE TO THE BEST OF YOUR KNOWLEDGE
WHAT THE LUSTER IS. USE AN APPROPRIATE
ADJECTIVE TO DESCRIBE THE LUSTER.
335
TEST 5 - HARDNESS. USE THE MOTH'S HARDNESS
SCALE TO INDICATE THE HARDNESS.
TEST 6 – CLEAVAGE. WHEN THE MINERAL HAS
DEFINITE FACES IN WHICH IT BREAKS OFF THEN IT
HAS CLEAVAGE. FOR EXAMPLE SOME MINERALS COME
IN CUBES, OTHERS IN 8 FACE SHAPED CRYSTALS.
DEPENDING ON THESE FACES THE MINERALS CLEAVAGE
IS DETERMINED.
TEST 7 – FRACTURE. THIS INDICATES WHETHER HOW
THE MINERAL BREAKS. IF IT BREAKS IRREGULARLY
THEN IT HAS FRACTURE.
DENSITY – MEASURE THE MASS AND THE VOLUME OF
THE MINERAL. MEASURE THE VOLUME OF THE MINERAL
BY USING THE METHOD TO MEASURE THE VOLUME OF
IRREGULAR SOLIDS.
336
Actually testing for minerals is harder
than you think.
If you can scratch the mineral with your
nail and it leaves a mark, the hardness
will be between 0 to 2. If a copper
penny leaves a mark the hardness is
probably between 2 and 3. If a hard nail
leaves a mark but the a nail nor a penny
leaves a mark then the hardness is
probably between 5 and 6.
337
If your mineral leaves a mark on
glass then the mineral’s hardness
is probably between 7 and 8.
338
Chapter 14
339
THE CRUST OF THE EARTH IS BROKEN INTO PLATES. THESE
PLATES ARE KNOWN TO MOVE.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY GIVES A REASON FOR THE
MOVING CRUST.
THE CRUST COULD BE MOVING BY CONVECTION CURRENTS
IN THE MANTLE AND OUTER CORE.
CONVECTION CURRENTS ARE THE MOVEMENT OF HOTTER
MATERIAL UPWARD AND COLDER MATERIAL DOWNWARD
DUE TO CHANGE IN DENSITY OF THESE MATERIALS.
FOR EXAMPLE HOT AIR RISES ON EQUATORIAL REGIONS OF
THE EARTH DUE TO HOT AIR HAVING LESS DENSITY AND
THEN WHEN IT RISES TO A CERTAIN ELEVATION IT COOLS
DOWN AND SINKS DUE TO ITS HIGH DENSITY WITH THE
ATOMS IN THE AIR COMING CLOSER TOGETHER. THIS CYCLE
IS REPEATED AND CAUSES AND CONVECTION CURRENT.
CONVECTION CURRENTS ARE THE MACHINES THAT DRIVE
THE CONTINENTAL PLATE MOVEMENT.
CONTINENTAL PLATE MOVEMENT CAN ALSO BE SEEN BY THE
MOVEMENT OF T HE CONTINENTS AND THE SIMILARITY OF
GEOGRAPHICAL AND LIVING FEATURES IN CONTINENTS THAT
ARE FAR APART.
340
FISSURES ARE HOLES IN THE CRUST OF THE EARTH AND COULD LEAD
DEEP DOWN TO MAGMA PITS WHICH ARE LARGE RESERVOIRS OF
MAGMA.
THE HOT GASES THAT COME OUT OF FISSURES ARE USUALLY SULFUR
DI OXIDE AND CARBON GASES. THERE IS ALSO POSSIBILITY OF
STEAM DEPENDING ON THE AMOUNT OF WATER CONTENT IN THE
ROCK STRATA. THEY ARE SUPERHEATED GASES AND CAN BE AT
SEVERAL HUNDRED DEGREES.
CONTINENTAL PLATE MOVEMENT IS THE SOURCE OF VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY. THIS MOVEMENT CAUSES THE FORMATION OF FISSURES,
THROUGH WHICH MAGMA OR HOT GASES COULD COME UP. SINCE
THESE GASES AND MAGMA ARE KEPT UNDER SUCH PRESSURE. WHEN
THIS MATERIAL IS RELEASED THROUGH A FISSURE THERE IS A
TREMENDOUS RATE OF FLOW OUTWARD THROUGH THE FISSURE.
341
IF THERE IS A LOT OF GASES AND STEAM TRAPPED WITHIN THE
MAGMA THEN THE RELEASE OF ENERGY IS MORE VIOLENT AND WE
SEE PRELATIC EVENTS.
A PYROCLASTIC EVENT IS ASSOCIATED WITH STRATA VOLCANOES
WHICH SEND OUT LAVA BOMBS AND SUDDEN RELEASE OF SPOUTS
OF MAGMA ACCOMPANIED BY MASSIVE EARTH MOVEMENTS.
MT. ST. HELENS WAS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THIS KIND OF VOLCANO.
TAR PITS ARE THOSE AREAS WHERE TAR HAS BEEN RELEASED
THROUGH FISSURES/VENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST THROUGH
WHICH TAR WHICH IS FORMED FROM ANCIENT SEDIMENTS COME
UP TO THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
PUMICE IS THE LAVA ROCK THAT FORMS WHEN THERE IS A LOT OF
AIR POCKETS IN THE MAGMA. IT IS A LIGHT IGNEOUS ROCK.
GRANITE IS FOUND FORMED IN SITES WHERE THE MAGMA COOLED
UNDERGROUND SLOWLY. BASALT AND RHYOLITE ARE IGNEOUS
ROCKS THAT HAVE FORMED FAIRLY QUICKLY AFTER VOLCANIC
ERUPTIONS.
OBSIDIAN IS ANOTHER IGNEOUS ROCK THAT FORMS VERY
QUICKLY ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
342
SUDDEN RELEASE OF ENERGY CAUSES EARTHQUAKES. (P,S, AND L).
PRIMARY WAVES BEHAVE LIKE DOMINOES HITTING ONE ANOTHER AND THE
ENERGY TRAVELING FORWARD PASSING FROM ONE PIECE OF MATTER TO THE
OTHER.
SECONDARY WAVES ARE LIKE WAVES AND UNDULATE. THEY CAUSE AN UP
AND DOWN MOTION OF THE MATTER AS ENERGY PASSES THROUGH IT.
LARGE WAVES ARE VERY COMPLICATED WAVES OF ENERGY THAT CAUSE A
SIDE WAYS AND UP AND DOWN MOVEMENT.
L- WAVES CAUSE THE MOST DAMAGE. S-WAVES CANNOT PASS WELL
THROUGH LIQUIDS. P- WAVES COULD PASS THROUGH MOST MATERIAL.
EARTHQUAKE WAVES CAN BE USED TO ESTABLISH THE PARTS OF THE EARTH.
THE EARTH HAS FOUR DISTINCTIVE REGIONS IN IT.
THE CRUST IS WHAT WE LIVE ON, BELOW IT IS THE MANTLE, BELOW THE
MANTLE IS THE OUTER CORE AND IN THE CENTER IS THE INNER CORE..
THIS CAN BE ESTABLISHED BY TRACING THE PATH OF P AND S WAVES AS
THEY TRAVEL THROUGH THE EARTH.
P-WAVES TRAVEL THROUGH THE EARTH WITH A CERTAIN PATTERN. AS THEY
PASS THROUGH THE MANTLE THEIR SPEED INCREASES STEADILY UNTIL IN
THE REGION OF THE CORE ITS SPEED IS THE MOST. THIS INDICATES TO US
THAT THERE ARE DISTINCTIVE AREAS OF DENSITY. THE INNER CORE BEING
THE MOST DENSE AND THE OUTER CORE NEXT, AND THE LEST DENSE IS THE
MANTLE.
SECONDARY WAVES DO NOT PASS THROUGH THE OUTER CORE BECAUSE IT
CONTAINS MATERIAL THAT IS LIQUIDIZE IN COMPOSITION.
343
WHENEVER THERE ARE ANY EMERGENCIES IN A STATE OR
CITY THE OFFICE OF EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT TAKES
OVER THE SITUATION TO HANDLE IT. THE IDEA IS TO HAVE
A CENTRAL OFFICE AND OFFICER HANDLING THE
SITUATION.
WE LEARNT FROM THE MOVIE ‘VOLCANO’ THAT PRECEDING
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY THERE IS ALWAYS SEISMIC ACTIVITY.
BY SEISMIC ACTIVITY WE MEAN THAT THE EARTH SHAKES
OR QUAKES. THIS SHAKING CAN BE RECORDED ON A
RICHTER SCALE. IN RUNS FROM 1 TO 10 . 1 BEING THE
LEAST POWERFUL AND 10 THE MOST POWERFUL. THERE ARE
OTHER MEASURES AND UNITS BUT THIS IS THE MOST
COMMON ONE. EARTH TREMORS AND GAS RELEASE ARE
PRELIMINARY INDICATORS OF POSSIBLE VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY.
344
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
CONGLOMERATE,
BRECCIA, SANDSTONE (CLASTIC – ROCKS WITH
PIECES OF ROCK EMBEDDED, THESE ROCKS HAVE VARIOUS SIZES
OF SEDIMENT IN THEM, CONGLOMERATE HAVING THE LARGEST
PIECES AND SANDSTONE HAVING THE SMALLEST PIECES)
SHALE, SILTSTONE, LIMESTONE ARE OTHER EXAMPLES OF
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. LIMESTONES HAVE FORMED FROM
SEDIMENTS IN OCEANS. SHALE AND SILTSTONE ARE MADE UP OF
VERY FINE SEDIMENTS.
SEDIMENTS FORM THROUGH TWO KINDS OF WEATHERING.
WEATHERING IS THE BREAKING DOWN OF ROCKS INTO SMALLER,
AND SMALLER PIECES. MECHANICAL WEATHERING IS THE
BREAKING DOWN ROCKS BY MECHANICAL MEANS.
WATER IS THE ONLY COMPOUND THAT EXPANDS WHEN IT FREEZES.
WATER GETS INTO CRACKS IN THE ROCKS AND DURING COLD
WEATHER FREEZES, EXPANDS AND BREAKS DOWN ROCK.
OTHER KINDS OF AGENTS THAT CAUSE MECHANICAL WEATHERING
IS WIND ACTION AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES THAT BRING ROCKS
DOWN ON OTHER ROCKS AND BREAK THEM UP.
THESE SEDIMENTS THAT ARE FORMED ARE CARRIED BY MOVING
WATER. THE FASTER THE MOVEMENT OF WATER THE MORE
SEDIMENT THAT IS CARRIED. THEREFORE A RIVER LIKE THE
MISSISSIPPI COULD CARRY A LOT OF SEDIMENT. THIS SEDIMENT
IS THEN DEPOSITED DEPENDING ON THE SPEED OF THE CURRENT.
AS IT NEARS THE DELTA, THE RIVER SLOWS AND DEPOSITS THE
HEAVIER SEDIMENT AND THEN FINALLY AS IT ENTERS THE OCEANS
IT SLOWS DOWN COMPLETELY AND DEPOSITS THE VERY FINE 345
SEDIMENTS.
THE SEDIMENT THEN LIES THERE AND HAS MANY OTHER
LAYERS OF SEDIMENTS THAT IS PILED UP ON TOP OF IT.
OVER THE YEARS (MILLIONS) THESE LAYERS GET COMPACT
AND CEMENTED AND FORM SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
SEDIMENT THAT PILES UP IN OCEANS FORM LIMESTONE.
THESE ROCKS CONTAIN REMAINS OF OCEANIC CREATURES.
PLACES WHERE LIMESTONE IS FOUND WERE UNDER THE
OCEAN AT SOME TIME DURING THERE LIFE.
346
Metamorphic Rocks
347
The Rock Cycle
348
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE.
PRECAMBRIAN, PALEOZOIC, MESOZOIC, AND CENEZOIC ARE THE FOUR ERAS
THAT EARTH’S AGE IS DIVIDED INTO.
PRECAMBRIAN STRETCHED FROM THE BIRTH OF THE PLANET TO THE START
OF THE MESOZOIC ERA WHICH IS ABOUT 4 BILLION YEARS. IT ENDS WITH
THE APPEARANCE OF SINGLE CELLED ORGANISMS IN AN EARTH THAT WAS
MOSTLY COVERED BY OCEANS.
DURING THE EARLY PRECAMBRIAN ERA THE EARTH COOLED FROM A
SEETHING MASS OF MOLTEN MATERIAL TO FORM THE DISTINCTIVE LAYERS
OF THE EARTH WITH A HARD CRUST SEALING IN THE MANTLE AND THE
OUTER AND INNER CORES. THIS SEALING IN CAUSES THE FORMATION OF
FISSURES AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY BECOMING RAMPANT. THE MANY
VOLCANOES PRODUCE GASES SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2), SULFUR
DIOXIDE (SO2), AND WATER. THE STEAM WOULD CONDENSE INTO RAIN
WHICH COVERED THE LAND AREA AND CREATED THE VAST OCEANS.
HOWEVER THE RAIN WAS MIXED WITH THE GASES AND FORMED ACID RAIN.
THE ACID RAIN AND WATER CAUSES A LOT OF WEATHERING AND
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTS.
THE PALEOZOIC ERA THAT IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS THE END OF THE
PRECAMBRIAN PERIOD IS SIGNIFICANT IN THAT IT SHOWS THE FIRST
EXPLOSION OF LIVING ORGANISMS THAT ARE COMPLEX AND IS THEREFORE
KNOWN AS THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION. THE FIRST PERIOD IN THE
PALEOZOIC ERA IS THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD. PERIODS ARE SMALLER
DIVISIONS OF TIME WITHIN THE FOUR ERAS. PLANTS ALSO GREW IN
ABUNDANCE AND VARIETY. BY THE END OF THE PALEOZOIC ERA AND THE
PERMIAN PERIOD THE FIRST ORGANISMS TO EXIST ON LAND EMERGE. THE
PALEOZOIC ERA ALSO WITNESSED THE FIRST OF MANY MASS EXTINCTIONS
AND TRILOBITES WHICH WERE IN SUCH GREAT ABUNDANCE DURING THE
EARLY PART OF THE MESOZOIC ERA DIED OUT COMPLETELY BY THE END OF
IT!
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B +
THE MESOZOIC ERA THAT IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWED SHOWED THE
APPEARANCE OF HUGE CREATURES THAT STAYED ON THE LAND AND
WERE CARNIVORES. WARM BLOODED ANIMALS STARTED TO APPEAR.
THE FISH THAT FIRST APPEARED IN THE PALEOZOIC ERA BECAME
FOR ADAPTED IN THE OCEANS WITH LARGE SIZES SURVIVING. AT
THE END OF THE MESOZOIC WE ARE CONFRONTED WITH THE
SECOND MAJOR EXTINCTION AND THE LARGE LAND ANIMALS
COMPLETELY DISAPPEAR.
THE MOST MODERN ERA IS THE CENOZOIC ERA. THIS IS THE ERA IN
WHICH HUMAN BEINGS DEVELOPED AND ONLY TOWARDS THE VERY
END OF THE CENOZOIC ERA.
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