Sex Chromosomes
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Transcript Sex Chromosomes
Chapter 2
Genetic and Environmental
Foundations
Physical attractiveness of premature infants affects outcome at discharge from
the NICU
Badr, LK & Abdallah, B (2001) Infant Behavior and Development, vol. 24, p. 129+
Genetic Foundations
• Chromosomes – store and
transmit genetic information.
• Genes – segments of DNA
located along the
chromosomes
• DNA – substance of which
genes and chromosomes are
made
• less than two percent of a person's DNA represents
active genes! The rest of the DNA seems to be involved
mediating how the genes are expressed.
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Chromosomes, Cells, and Sex:
Terminology
Autosomes
Sex
Chromosomes
The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are
not sex chromosomes
23rd pair of chromosomes
Determines sex
XX = female, XY = male
Gametes
Sex cells: sperm and ova
Zygote
Sperm and ovum united
Twins
•Fraternal/Dizygotic
– two zygotes, or fertilized ova
•Identical/Monozygotic
– one zygote that divides into
two individuals
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Alleles
• Two forms of the same gene
appear at the same place on both
chromosomes in a pair
one inherited from each parent
homozygous—the two alleles are alike
heterozygous—the alleles differ
Genetic Principles
Homozygous: in a pair, both
genes for a trait are the
same
Eg:
Heterozygous: gene pair has 2
different gene types for
a trait
Eg:
III.
•
•
•
Genetic Principles
Dominant inheritance: receive genes for contradictory
traits; dominant trait is expressed (eg: )
Recessive Inheritance: homozygous trait, receives 2 of
the same recessive genes for that trait (eg:
Examples of
Dominant
and
Recessive
Characteristics
Table 2.2
Source: McKusick, 2007.
Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
need only 1 copy of gene to show disorder
Huntington’s Disease: example of dominant inheritance
gene on chromosome 4 identified in 1993
Dad: no disease (hh)
Mom: has disease (Hh)
Mom: H
Mom: h
Dad: h
Dad: h
PKU: recessive inheritance
need 2 copies of recessive gene to show disease
Dad: carrier (Np)
Mom: carrier (Np)
Mom: N
Mom: p
Dad: N
Dad: p
X-Linked Inheritance
Figure 2.5
Sex-linked disorders
carried on X chromosome
Color-blindness: sex linked
Mutation
•Somatic Mutation:
– Normal body cells mutate, an event that can
happen at any time in life.
– The DNA defect can eventually become
widespread enough to cause disease or
disability.
•Germline Mutation:
– Takes place in the cells that give rise to
gametes
– Defective DNA is passed on to the next
generation.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Down syndrome
Trisomy 21
• Sex chromosome
abnormalities
Problems with the
number of X or Y
chromosomes
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Risk of Down Syndrome and All
Chromosomal Abnormalities
by Maternal Age
Figure 2.6
Prenatal Diagnostic Methods
Amniocentesis
Chorionic villus sampling
Fetoscopy
Ultrasound
Maternal blood analysis
Preimplantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD)
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Karotype of DNA
Figure 2.1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights
Reserved.
Genetic Principles
Polygenic Inheritance: many genes interact to affect a trait
(eg: intelligence; skin color; athleticism)
Genotype: the complete set of genes (dominant and recessive)
we’ve inherited from biological parents; present at
conception
Phenotype: the outward expression of those genes; physical
characteristics (expressed genes are influenced by pre and
post-natal factors)
Twins
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•Fraternal/Dizygotic –
two zygotes, or fertilized
ova
•Identical/Monozygotic
– one zygote that
divides into two
individuals
Genetic Methods
twin and adoption studies
Twin studies: are identical
twins (MZ) more
similar to each other
than fraternal twins
(DZ)?
MZ= monozygotic
DZ= dizygotic
Did MZ pair share a
placenta?
Placental arrangement in twins
a) Fraternal and some identical twins have
separate placentas
b) Identical twins sharing a placenta (most
MZ twins share 1 placenta)
Twin-to-twin transfusion
syndrome (identical only)
Influences on Individual Differences
Heritability (h2): variation in a trait within a
group attributable to genes
• Shared Environment: common experiences
• Non-shared Environment: unique experiences
Heritability of intelligence
Heritability of IQ
Heritability of schizophrenia
The Alternative of Adoption
Adopted children tend to have more
learning and emotional difficulties than
other children.
The child’s age at adoption correlates to
learning and emotional difficulties
experienced.
Most adopted children eventually fare well.
•
•
Environmental Contexts
for Development
•Family
•Socioeconomic status
•Neighborhoods
•Towns and cities
•Cultural context
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Socioeconomic Status
and Family Functioning
Timing of family life cycle
Later parenthood (late 20s/early 30s)
Values and expectations
Father’s involvement
Communication and discipline styles
Children’s cognitive development
Affluence
Many affluent parents are not physically and
emotionally available for their children.
These parents often make excessive demands
for achievement.
Adolescents whose parents value
achievement over character often have
academic and emotional problems.
Poverty
•Emotional drain
•Joblessness
•High divorce rate
•Chronic stress
•Parents < 25 with
children hardest hit
•Most homeless families
consist of women with
children under 5
Neighborhoods and Schools
• Neighborhoods offer resources and social ties that
play an important part in children’s development.
– Higher-SES families are less dependent on their
immediate surroundings than are low-SES families.
– Social ties linking families together break down in areas
with unemployment, crime, and population turnover.
• Children spend an average of 14,000 hours in
school by high school graduation.
– Parent–school contact supports development at all
ages.
The Cultural Context
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Culture shapes every aspect of
daily life.
Different cultures have different
values; North American culture
values the independence, selfreliance, and privacy of the
family.
Subcultures
Extended-family households
Stay-at-home dad movement
The African-American
Extended Family
Today, more black than white adults have relatives
other than their own children living in the same
household.
The extended-family system provides emotional
support and the sharing of resources, and helps
reduce the stress of poverty and single parenthood.
These arrangements also place a high value on
cooperation and moral and religious values.
Individualist and
Collectivist Societies
• Individualist
• Collectivist
Reaction Range
Figure 2.9
V. Genotype-Environment Correlation
• 1.
Passive Gene-Environment
• Parents who are genetically related to child provide rearing
environment
•
• 2.
Evocative (eg: attractive infant study)
• Child’s genotype elicits certain environments
•
• 3.
Active (niche-picking)
• Seek out environments that are compatible/stimulating to
your predisposition
• VIDEO: Good example of gene-environment interaction
The Epigenetic Framework
• Epigenetics: environmental influences alter
gene expression; bidirectional exchange
between heredity and environment (cellular
and social)
•
eg: ADHD (prenatal exposure changes expression of DD
genotype on chromosome 12)