Transcript Click here to Human Developmentx

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Do not think of developmental psychology as
something that only occurs during your youth it
is a never ending process
Developmental psychology – The study of
progressive changes in behavior and abilities
from conception to death
Heredity and environment both contribute and
are equally important to the development of
who you are today
Heredity gives us a variety of potentials and
limitations, while the environment can affect
these through learning, nutrition, disease, and
culture
Heredity (nature) – The transmission of
physical and psychological characteristics
from parents to offspring through genes
(sperm and egg)
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – a molecular
structure that contains coded genetic
information
 The order of these molecules acts as a
code for genetic information
 In 2003, Human Genome Project
completed the sequencing of all 3 billion
chemical base pairs in human DNA
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Human Growth Sequence
Period
Duration
Descriptive Name
Prenatal period
Germinal period
Embryonic period
Fetal period
From conception to birth
First 2 weeks after conception
2-8 weeks after conception
From 8 weeks after conception to birth
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Neonate
Neonatal period
Infancy
From birth to a few weeks after birth
From a few weeks after birth until child is walking
securely; some children walk securely at less than a
year, while others may not be able to until age 17-18
months
Infant
Early childhood
From about 15-18 months until about 2-21/2 years
From age 2-3 to about age 6
Toddler
Preschool child
Middle childhood
From about age 6 to age 12
School-age child
Pubescence
Puberty
Adolescence
Period of about 2 years before puberty
Point of development at which biological changes of
pubescence reach a climax marked by sexual maturity
From the beginning of pubescence until full social
maturity is reached (difficult to fix duration of this period)
Adolescent
Adulthood
Young adulthood
(19-25)
Adulthood (26-40)
Maturity (41 plus)
From adolescence to death; sometimes subdivided into
other periods as shown at left
Adult
Senescence
No defined limit that would apply to all people;
extremely variable; characterized by marked
Adult (senile),
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Chromosomes – Thread-like “colored bodies” in the
nucleus of each cell that are made up of DNA
Human DNA is composed of 46 pairs of chromosomes
Sperm and ova cells both contain 23 pairs which
makes up your genetic heritage from your parents
Genes – Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry
hereditary information such as eye or hair color
Dominant gene – A gene whose influence will be
expressed each time the gene is present
Recessive gene – A gene whose influence will be
expressed only when it is paired with a second
recessive gene
Ex. If Samantha gets a blue-eye gene from Tom, and
a brown-eye gene from Olivia, Samantha will have
brown eyes since brown-eye genes are dominant
Father’s
genes
Brown-eyed father
If both parents are
brown-eyed, but carry
the blue-eyed recessive
gene, there is a 25%
chance they will have a
blue-eyed child
Brown-eyed mother
Mother’s
genes
Brown-eyed
child
Brown-eyed
child
Blue-eyed child
Brown-eyed
child
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Very few characteristics are defined by one gene
Polygenic characteristics – Personal traits or physical
properties that are influenced by many genes
working in combination
Heredity continues to effect us throughout our
maturation due to genes switching “on” or “off”
during our development cycle
Maturation – The physical growth and development
of the body and nervous system
“As the human growth sequence unfolds, genetic
instructions influence body size and shape, height,
intelligence, athletic potential, personality traits,
sexual orientation, and a host of other details
(Cummings, 2006).
Baby development
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Readiness – A condition that exists when
maturation has advanced enough to allow the
rapid acquisition of a particular skill
It is impossible to force a child to try to learn a
skill early. They will not be physically able to do
what your asking (walking or using the toilet)
until their bodies have developed
If you try toilet training at 18 months you might
be disappointed at how long it takes, but if you
waited until 24 months it might only take a very
short amount of time
The average age for completed toilet training
is around 3 years old
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Environment (nurture)- The
sum of all external
conditions affecting
development, including
especially the effects of
learning
A baby’s brain has fewer
dendrites and synapses, but
it is highly plastic (capable
of being altered by
experience)
We still genetically have
much in common with cave
dwellers from 30,000 years
ago, but through
experience and learning, a
child can learn to become
anything in our society
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The intrauterine environment (interior of the
womb) can be effected before birth
A child can be effected by poor nourishment,
syphilis, HIV, used drugs, radiation exposure, or
even something as simple as a loud noise
raising the heart rate of the fetus
Congenital problems – Problems or defects
that originate during prenatal development in
the womb
Genetic disorders – Problems caused by
defects in the genes or by inherited
characteristics; sickle-cell anemia, hemophilia,
cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, albinism,
and some forms of mental retardation
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Teratogen – Radiation, a drug, or other substance capable
of altering fetal development in nonheritable ways that
cause birth defects
The mother can make many choices that can directly
effect the health of their child
Drugs such as morphine, heroin, or methadone can cause a
new child to be born with an addiction
A baby born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is caused by
the mother consuming too much alcohol during pregnancy
and may cause low birth weight, a small head, bodily
defects, emotional, behavioral, and mental handicaps
Smoking tobacco is believed to deliver less oxygen to the
fetus and can cause a miscarriage or death soon after birth
as well as hampered language or mental abilities
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Early negative experiences may cause lifelong
emotional problems
If dealt with early enough, these effects from this
poor start in life can be reversed
Why do some experiences have more lasting effects
than others?
Sensitive period – During development, a period of
increased sensitivity to environmental influences.
Also, a time during which certain events must take
place for normal development to occur
A loving bond between child and caregiver needs
to be established during this time
If a child is not exposed to normal speech during
their first year, they might have impaired language
abilities
Deprivation – In development, the loss or
withholding of normal stimulation, nutrition,
comfort, love , and so forth; a condition of
lacking
 Enrichment – In development, deliberately
making an environment more stimulating,
nutritional, comforting, loving, and so forth
 Extreme forms of deprivation have
occurred where a child has been found
closed off in an attic or basement. This
child will generally be mute, retarded, and
emotionally damaged
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Milder forms of deprivation are much more likely to
occur
Poverty is a leading factor in deprivation
Poverty can effect a child by a child not receiving
enough resources such as nutritious meals, health
care, or learning materials and as a result, these
children can be sick often, have cognitive
developmental lags, and do poorly at school
The stress of poverty can also be a problem by
leading to marriage problems, less positive parenting,
and poorer parent-child relationships
1 in 7 American families fall under the poverty
problem making this a major problem in the United
States
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Can an improved environment enhance development?
An enriched environment should be a place that is novel,
complex, and stimulating
Some success has been found in rats by placing them into cages
that were decorated with colors, filled with platforms, ladders,
and cubbyholes
Found that these rats performed better on learning to navigate
mazes and had a larger, heavier brain with a thicker cortex
Enrichment has been found to have at least some positive effect
on development
It is good to offer your child a range of stimuli such as a colorful
world, new tastes, sounds, and things to touch
The more stimuli your child is exposed to and allowed to interact
with, the more they will learn
Best to always assume that your child is always in a relatively
sensitive period
Reaction range – The limits environment
places on the effects of heredity
 If your child is born with the genetic
structure of being gifted in music, but exists
in an environment that is not conductive
towards it’s stimulation, then she will end
up being lower than average in her
musical abilities
 Consequently, if exposed to an enriched
environment, she should have a normal or
even above normal musical level
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Deprived
Average
Environmen
Enriched
Low
Reactio
n Range
IQ Score
Average
High
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Nurture often affects the expression of hereditary
tendencies through ongoing reciprocal influences
(a parents behavior can effect a child while a
child can effect the behavior of the parent)
Temperament – The physical core of personality,
including emotional and perceptual sensitivity,
energy levels, typical mood, and so forth
About 40 percent of newborns are “easy
children” who are relaxed and agreeable
10 percent are “difficult children” who are
moody, intense, and easily angered
About 15 percent are “slow-to-warm-up children”
who are restrained, unexpressive, or shy
The rest don’t fall into a nice neat category
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Because babies have different temperaments, they will can
become active participants in their own development at
different times
If you child is an easy baby who smiles frequently and is
easy to feed, then you will be encouraged to touch and
interact more with your child which will allow a dynamic
reaction to occur between child and mother
These same techniques can be used to bring a shy child out
of their shell
Difficult children can make parents unhappy and act in a
more negative manner, which can turn a shy child into a
very shy child
Developmental level – An individual’s current state of
physical, emotional, and intellectual development
Heredity, environment, and your own behavior combine to
determine your developmental level at any stage of life
Review (3-1)
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1. Areas of the DNA molecule called genes are made up of
dominant and recessive chromosomes. T or F?
2. Most inherited characteristics can be described as
polygenetic. T or F?
3. If one parent has a one dominant brown-eye gene and
one recessive blue-eye gene and the other parent has two
dominant brown-eye genes, what is the chance that their
child will have blue eyes?
• A. 25%
C. 0%
• B. 50%
D. 75%
4. The orderly sequence observed in the unfolding of many
basic responses can be attributed to ________.
maturation
5. “Slow-to-warm-up” children can be described as
restrained, unexpressive, or shy. T or F?
6. A ___________
sensitive period is a time of increased sensitivity to
environmental influences.
7. As a child develops there is a continuous ________
interaction
between the forces of heredity and environment.
Can you think of clear examples of some ways in which
heredity and environmental forces have combined to affect
your development?
Is a neonate (newborn infant) inert and
unfeeling if they require an adult for
survival?
 A newborn is aware of their surroundings
and their physical developments, such as
brain, nervous system, and body, are
closely tied to maturation
 Babies senses are not as developed as an
adults, but they are very responsive to their
surroundings none the less
 Babies are born with a number of adaptive
reflexes to help them survive
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Grasping reflex – place an object into a baby’s hand
and they will instantly grab onto it. Believed to have
been left over from the time of living in trees to help
us from falling
Rooting reflex – baby will turn her head after being
touched on the cheek as if she is searching for food
Suckling reflex – once baby has located the nipple,
she will instinctively drink; because nursing is positive
reinforcer, a child will learn quickly to nurse more
actively
Moro reflex – if a loud noise startles a baby, they will
instinctively react by throwing out their arms and legs
(again as if to catch onto a tree like baby monkeys
(literally))
John Locke’s tabula rasa??
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Babies are not just full of reflexes, they mimic
behaviors extraordinarily well
This helps them to learn
From the day babies are born, they are processing
and storing a plethora of information at an amazing
rate
In the first weeks of life, babies are able to
increasingly think, learn from what they see, make
predictions, and search for explanations
Jerome Bruner found that a baby can associate a
voice as needing a body connected to it
If mom talks to baby and baby can see where her,
baby will remain clam; if voice comes over
loudspeaker, baby will become agitated
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Robert Fantz tried testing
what catches a baby’s
interest through their eyes
Developed a looking
chamber where two
images will be placed in
front of a baby and we
measure eye movements
to discern which image
holds her attention longer
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Franz found that babies prefer images like a checkerboard
or bulls eye to that of a simple object like a rectangle
Babies are excited by circles, curves, and bright lights
Newborns are highly adapted for seeing faces that are 1
foot in front of them; within hours of being born they will
prefer the face of their mother over strangers
Babies preferred looking at human faces over complex
shapes and infants preferred familiar faces…until the age of
2
Jerome Kagan showed toddlers masks with facial features
in incorrect places and found that toddlers would spend
much more time examining these faces
Believed that babies were trying to make sense of why this
scrambled face differed from what they had come to
expect
The rate of maturation for children will differ per child but the
order of their maturation and motor functions is almost universal
 Even if a child “skips” a stage they will likely substitute it with
another action ; rolling, creeping, or shuffling instead of crawling
 Muscular control extends
cephalocaudaly (from
• head to toe) and
proximodistaly (from center
of body to extremities)
 Babies must learn to control
their actions through trial
and error
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Tied to maturation
Most basic emotions appear to be unlearned, but take time to
develop
Excitement is the only emotion newborns are born with
Bridges claims that all basic human emotions appear before age
2
Izard claims that emotions are “hardwired” and exist as a part of
evolution and heredity
Smiling is most common in newborns as a survival mechanism
which invites parental care
Social smile – Smiling elicited by social stimuli, such as seeing a
parent’s face
Babies are quick to teach us what they like or dislike in their world;
form of communication; baby smiles when you hold up her
favorite teddy bear
Up to the age of 3, there will be no faster time of development in
a child’s life
Affection for Children
Affection for Adults
Elation
Joy
Delight
Excitement
Distress
Jealousy
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Birth
3 mo
6 mo
9 mo
12 mo
18 mo
24 mo
Review (3-2)
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1. If an infant is startled, he or she will make
movements similar to an embrace. This is known as
the
• A. Grasping reflex
• B. Rooting reflex
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C. Moro reflex
D. Adaptive reflex
2. During infancy, a capacity for imitating others first
becomes evident at about 9 months of age. T or F?
3. After age 2, infants testing in a looking chamber
show a marked preference for familiar faces and
simpler designs. T or F?
4. General excitement or interest is the clearest
emotional response present in newborn infants, but
meaningful expressions of delight and distress appear
soon after. T or F?
5. Neonates display a social smile as early as 10 days
after birth. T or F?
6. If you were going to test newborn infants to see if
they prefer their own mother’s face to that of a
stranger, what precautions would you take?
Children develop self-awareness at about
the same time they develop an emotional
bond with an adult
 Social development – The development of
self-awareness, attachment to parents or
caregivers, and relationships with other
children and adults
 Social development cannot occur until a
child becomes self-aware
 When seeing pictures of themselves on
television, they will believe it is a different
child up until about 18 months
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Emotional attachment – An especially close emotional bond
that infants form with their parents, caregivers, or others
Surrogate mother – A substitute mother (often an inanimate
dummy in animal research)
Harry Harlow took baby monkeys from their mothers and
placed them in a cage with two surrogate mothers; one
made of wire and one covered with terry cloth
Monkeys would choose to cling to terry-cloth mother even
when bottle was placed in wire surrogate
When “fear stimuli” were used on the monkey, it would go to
terry-cloth surrogate for comfort
Suggests that love and attachment can be a very powerful
part of a child’s emotional life
Contact comfort – A pleasant and reassuring feeling human
and animal infants get from touching or clinging to something
soft and warm, usually their mother
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The first year of life is extremely important for attachment to
develop
At first, babies will respond to everybody evenly, but by 2-3
months they will start to show a preference for their mother
At 7 months they be truly attached to their mothers and will
begin to support attachments to other important people in
their lives
Separation anxiety – Distress displayed by infants when they
are separated from their parents or principal caregivers
A small level of anxiety is expected, but one in twenty
children will suffer from separation anxiety disorder
Some children fear that they will be lost without their
parents, or refuse to go to school. If this goes on for over a
month, professional help should be sought
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According to Mary Ainsworth, quality of attachment
can be measured by how babies react when their
mothers return after a brief separation
Securely attached – A stable and positive emotional
bond; baby is upset by mother’s absence and they
seek to be near her when she returns
Insecure-avoidant attachment – An anxious
emotional bond marked by a tendency to avoid
reunion with a parent or caregiver
Insecure-ambivalent attachment – An anxious
emotional bond marked by both a desire to be with
a parent or caregiver and some resistance to being
reunited; mixed feelings
Infants who are securely
attached at the age of 1
year show more resiliency,
curiosity, problem-solving
ability, and social skill in
preschool
 Ex. Children raised in
Romanian orphanages
received almost no attention
for the first 2 years of life
 When adopted by American
families they would be poorly
attached; would walk off
with strangers, be anxious
and remote, and didn’t like
contact
 What we experience early in
life effects our emotions later
in life
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Attachment Category
(Middle Class Families)
Avoidant
22%
Secure 63%
Ambivalent
10%
Unclassified
5%
Attachment style; pg 91
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Does commercial day care interfere with the quality of
attachment?
If your child attends a very high quality day care then this will not
adversely affect the attachment
High quality day care can improve children’s social and mental
skills and allow them to have better relationships with their
mothers
Poor quality day cares can have the reversed effect by possibly
weakening attachment and creating behavior problems that
didn’t exist before
Look for a day care center that has at least a small number of
children per caregiver, small group size (12 to 15), trained
caregivers, minimal staff turnover, and stable, constant care
Affectional needs – Emotional needs for love and affection; it is
virtually impossible to spoil a child for the first 2 years, and they
may require that much attention to have a loving relationship
later in life
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Parental styles – Identifiable patters of parental
caretaking and interaction with children
Authoritarian parents – Parents who enforce
rigid rules and demand strict obedience to
authority
Generally view children as having few rights
but adult-like responsibilities
“Do it because I say so”
Children of authoritarian parents tend to be
obedient and self-controlled, emotionally stiff,
withdrawn, apprehensive, and lacking in
curiosity
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Overly permissive parents – Parents who give little guidance,
allow too much freedom, or do not require the child to take
responsibility
“Do whatever you want”
Child has rights similar to an adult, but limited responsibilities;
children tend to be dependent, immature, and misbehave
frequently
Authoritative parents – Parents who supply firm and consistent
guidance combined with love and affection
“Do it for this reason”
Encourage the child to act responsibly, to think, and to make
good decisions
Produces children who are resilient and able to bounce back
after a bad experience
Children are competent, self-controlled, independent, assertive,
and inquiring
Maternal influences – The aggregate of all
psychological effects mothers have on their
children
 Paternal influences- The aggregate of all
psychological effects fathers have on their
children
 Generally mothers have a greater impact in
parenting than fathers
 Fathers are more likely to play with their
children and tell them stories; mothers are
typically responsible for the physical and
emotional care of their children
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Type of Child Care
Father
Mothers
Mother-child and father- child interactions. This graph shows what occurred on routine days in a sample
of more than 1,400 Australian homes. Mothers spend about twice as long each day on child care,
compared with fathers. Further, mothers spend more time on physical and emotional care (such as
feeding, bathing, soothing) than on interactive care (such as playing, reading, activities); fathers show
the reverse pattern. Finally, mothers spend more time on travel (for instance, driving children to sports or
music lessons), communication (such as talking to teachers about their children), and passive care
(supervising children while they play).
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Fathers are more visual and tactile with their children
than mothers
Fathers will handle the baby, tickling, engage in
rough-and-tumble play, and imitate the baby
Mothers speak more to infants, play more
conventional games (peek-a-boo), and spend more
time in care giving
Fathers playing with their children is an essential part
of development and may produce a more
competent child
Infants can get different views of males and females.
Mothers offer comfort, nurturance, and verbal
stimulation, tend to be comforting. Males may come
and go and while around represent action,
exploration, and risk-taking
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Traditional African-American values emphasize
loyalty and interdependence among family
members, security, developing a positive
identity, and not giving up in the face of
adversary
Important to stress obedience and respect for
elders
Child upbringing is strict and seen as a
necessity; especially in dangerous urban
environments
Parents also promote self-reliance,
resourcefulness, and ability to take care of
oneself in difficult situations
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Similar to AA parents with strict standards in
discipline
Place high value on family values, family pride,
and loyalty
Typically affectionate and indulgent towards
younger children
Older children are expected to learn social
skills, be calm, obedient, courteous, and
respectful
Possible that social skills are more valued than
cognitive skills
Stresses cooperation over competition; bad for
American environment
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Tend to be group oriented with emphasis on
interdependence among individuals
Differs from western culture; values individual
effort and independence
Children are taught that their actions can bring
pride or shame to their family
Must therefore set aside their own desires when
the good of the family is at stake
Encourage hard work, moral behavior, and
achievement
Early childhood is lenient and permissive
After age 5, parents begin to expect respect,
obedience, self-control, and self-discipline
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Children are expected to be polite, obedient,
disciplined, and conforming
Punishments include spankings, teasing, or
shaming in front of others
Arab-American fathers are very strict who
demand obedience so as to not be shamed
by the child’s behavior
Success, generosity ,and hospitality are highly
valued
Pursuit of family honor encourages hard work,
thrift, conservatism, and educational
achievement
Expected to respect their parents, extended
family, and other adults
Review (3-3)
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1. Clear signs of self-awareness or self-recognition are
evident in most infants by the time they reach 8
months of age. T or F?
2. The development of separation anxiety in an infant
corresponds to the formation of an attachment to
parents. T or F?
3. High-quality day care can actually improve children’s
social and mental skills. T or F?
4. Fathers are more likely to act as playmates for their
children, rather than caregivers. T or F?
5. According to Diana Baumrind’s research, effective
parents are authoritarian in their approach to their
children’s behavior. T or F?
6. Asian-American parents tend to be more individually
oriented than parents whose ethnic roots are
European. T or F?
7. Can you think of another way to tell if infants have
self-awareness?
8.Can emotional bonding begin before birth?
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Both maturation (nature) and social
development (nurture) play a hand in
language development
By 1 year of age, babies start crying to gain
attention
Parents can discern different cries to tell if the
infant is hungry, angry, or pain
6 to 8 weeks baby will being cooing (the
repetition of vowel sounds such as “oo” and
“ah”)
7 months of age, baby will start babbleing
(consonants b, d, m, and g are combined with
the vowel sounds to produce a meaningless
language; “dadadada” or “bababa”
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Soon after babbling beings, language will start
to have an effect. Japanese babies will start
babbling in a way that sounds Japanese
1 year of age, children start responding to real
words like “no” or “hi”
18 months to 2 years children’s vocabulary
man include 100 words or more
Language starts in the single-word stage where
children will use only one word to express
themselves; i.e. “go” or “juice”
Will quickly move to simple two-word
sentences called telegraphic speech; “wantteddy” or “mama-gone”
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2 year olds can understand most of parent’s
demands, but are less likely to carry them out
Will most likely assert their independence by
saying “No drink”, “Me do it”, or “My cup”
Terrible-twos exist due to 2 year olds who do
things because you don’t want them to
Toddler’s expression of newfound
independence
After age 2 children’s language takes a
dramatic leap forward
By first grade child will understand about 8,000
words and use about 4,000
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Biological predisposition – The presumed hereditary
readiness of humans to learn certain skills, such as
how to use language, or a readiness to behave in
particular ways
Noam Chomsky believes we are born with inert
language patterns, much like the ability to walk
Based on idea that children around the world use
the same relative sentence patterns in their first
sentences
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Identification: “See kitty”
Nonexistence: “Allgone milk”
Possession: “My doll”
Agent-Action: “Mama give”
Negation: “Not ball”
Question: “Where doggie?”
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Many psychologists claim Chomsky discounts
the importance of learning and social contexts
in language acquisition
Psycholinguists (specialist in the psychology of
language) show that imitation of adults along
with rewards for correctly using language are a
part of language learning
Parents help by correcting a misspoken
sentence or ask child a clarifying question
regarding spoken error
Parents and infant can communicate before
language is acquired and this social
interaction may be just as important as
language recognition
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Babies engage in “conversations” with parents by giving and
withholding attention and by smiling, gazing, or vocalizing
In the “I’m-going-to-get-you” game adults and babies come to
share a set of rhythms and expectations
Baby will connect this game to a signal that they learn to expect
and react to the parent
Signal – In early language development, any behavior, such as
touching, vocalizing, gazing, or smiling, that allows nonverbal
interaction and turn-taking between parent and child
This helps baby to learn “turn-taking” which is the idea that there
are alternating messages that are sent and received
A baby’s vocalizations and attention provide a way for a parent
to communicate with their child
The more children interact with their parents, the quicker the
learn to talk and the faster they learn thinking abilities
You
Baby
(smiles)
“Oh what a nice little
smile.”
“Yes, isn’t that nice?”
“There.”
“There’s a nice little smile.”
(burps)
“Well, pardon you!”
Yes, that’s better, isn’t it?”
“Yes.”
(vocalizes)
“Yes.”
(smiles)
“What’s so funny?”
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Motherese (or parentese) – A pattern of speech used
when talking to infants, marked by a higher-pitched
voice; short, simple sentences; repetition, slower
speech; and exaggerated voice inflections
While baby is in babbling stage, parents still use adult
language, but once baby says first word, parents
switch over to parentese, which 4 month olds prefer
over adult language
Parentese is simpler and has a distinct “musical”
quality
No matter what language is used, the melodies,
pauses, and inflections used to comfort, praise, and
give warning are universal
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We praise babies with a rising, then falling pitch
(“BRA-vo!” “GOOD girl!”
Warnings are delivered in a short, sharp rhythm
(“Nein!” “Nein!”)
To comfort, parents use low, smooth, drawnout tones (“Oooh poor baaa-by,” “Oooh
pobrecito”)
A high-pitched, rising melody is used to call
attention to objects (“See the pretty BIRDIE?”)
Parentese helps parents to get babies’
attention, communicate with them, and teach
them language
As child gets older, parents adjust language to
child’s level
Review (3-4)
•
1. The development of speech and language usually
occurs in which order?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A. Crying, cooing, babbling, telegraphic speech
B. Cooing, crying, babbling, telegraphic speech
C. Babbling, crying, cooing, telegraphic speech
D. Crying, babbling, cooing, identification
2. Simple two-word sentences are characteristic of
_________
telegraphic speech.
3. Noam ________
Chomsky has advanced the idea that
language acquisition is build on innate patterns.
4. Prelanguage turn-taking and social interactions
would be of special interest to a psycholinguist. T or F?
5. The style of speaking know as
Parentese/motherese is higher in pitch and has a
__________________
musical quality.
6. The children of professional parents hear more
words per hour than the children of welfare parents,
and they also tend to score higher on tests of mental
abilities. How else could their higher scores be
explained?
Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to
start asking how thinking is developed in
children
 Proposed that children’s cognitive skills
progress through a series of maturational
stages
 According to Piaget, children’s thinking is
less abstract, tends to be based on their
understanding of particular examples and
objects they can see or touch
 Children also use fewer generalizations,
categories, and principles than adults
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Assimilation – In Piaget’s theory, the application of existing
mental patterns to new situations (that is, the new situation
is assimilated to existing mental schemes)
Ex. Ben loves pounding on toy blocks with his favorite toy, a
plastic hammer. He gets a new plastic wrench for his
birthday. If he uses it to pound the blocks, he will have
assimilated it into an existing knowledge structure
Accommodation – In Piaget’s theory, the modification of
existing mental patters to fit new demands (that is, mental
schemes are changed to accommodate new information
or experiences)
Ex. A child might view a dime as worth less than a larger
nickel. After the children start using money more, they will
have to adjust their idea of what “more” and “less” are to
adjust to a new situation
Sensorimotor stage – Stage of intellectual
development during which sensory input
and motor responses become coordinated
 Focus you attention on an object within the
room and close your eyes. Does the object
still exist?
 Object permanence – Concept, gained in
infancy, that objects continue to exist even
when they are hidden from view
 As an adult, you can keep an image of the
object in your “mind’s eye” which babies
lack the ability to create internal
representations
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Children’s intellectual development at this age can
only occur as nonintellectual and nonverbal
Mainly concerned with learning to coordinate
information from her senses and motor movements
Sometime during the first year, children will begin to
actively pursue disappearing objects
By age 2, they will be able to anticipate the
movement of a hidden object; i.e. a train that goes
through a tunnel, child will look at the end of the
tunnel where the train will exit
Developments in this stage center around the child
creating a more stable and predictable world
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Preoperational stage – Period of intellectual
development during which children begin to
use language and think symbolically, yet
remain intuitive and egocentric in their thought
Imagine your room at home as if you were
sitting on the ceiling; you have just transformed
your room
Transformation – The ability to mentally change
the shape or form of a mental image or idea
Children can now form mental images, but at
this age they have difficulty in changing that
mental image
Before the age of 6 or 7, children
begin to think symbolically and use
language
 Their thinking is in very concrete
terms through
 Intuitive thought – Thinking that
makes little or no use of reasoning
and logic
 After age 7 children enter the
“age of reason” where there is a
more defined trend to use logic
and adult-like thought
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Egocentric thought – Thought that
is self-centered and fails to
consider the viewpoints of others
 Hold a mirror between yourself
and a child and ask them what
you would see and they will think
that you see them
 Don’t process the ability to
mentally transform her view into
what you are seeing
 Helps to explain why children can
be selfish or uncooperative at
times
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Concrete operational stage – Period of
intellectual development during which children
become able to use the concepts of time,
space, volume, and number, but in ways that
remain simplified and concrete, rather than
abstract
Hallmark of this stage is the ability to mentally
reverse their thoughts
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“Do you have a brother?”
“Yes.”
“What’s his name?”
“Sam.”
“Does Sam have a brother?”
“No.”
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A concrete operational child would not be able to
recognize that 4 x 2 = 8 and 2 x 4 = 8; they must memorize
the relationships separately
During this stage conservation will be mastered
Conservation – In Piaget’s theory, mastery of the concept
that the weight, mass, and volume of matter remains
unchanged (in conserved) even when the shape or
appearance of objects change
The liquid in the glass did not magically change volume, the
original amount is conserved
Children can begin to use concepts of time, space, and
number
Can think logically about very concrete objects or situations
Stop believing in Santa Clause at this age since they realize
that his bag could not possibly hold enough toys for millions
of children
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Formal operations stage – Period of intellectual
development characterized by thinking that
includes abstract, theoretical, and
hypothetical ideas
Children that reach this stage start thinking in
more abstract and theoretical ways and
become less egocentric
If asked “What would happen if people could
suddenly fly?” a concrete operational child
would simply answer “People can’t fly.” A
formal operations child could give this more
thought and predict the possibilities of what
would occur in this scenario
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Older adolescents are capable of
inductive and deductive
reasoning, comprehending math,
physics, philosophy, psychology,
and other abstract systems
Not everybody reaches formal
operations stage
Thinking becomes concrete if it is
regarding an unfamiliar topic
Formal thinking is more of a result
from culture and learning than
maturation
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Piaget suggests to help guide intellectual
development by providing experiences that
are only slightly novel, unusual, or challenging
Follow the one-step-ahead strategy, by aiming
your teaching strategies to be just beyond your
child’s current level of understanding
Avoid “forced teaching” or “hothousing”
which is the idea of forcing a child to learn a
topic well beyond their current development
level
Learning reading, math, gymnastics, swimming,
or music at an accelerated pace can bore or
oppress them
Piaget
Monopoly Game
Guidelines for Parents
Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years)
The stage during which sensory input and
motor responses become coordinated
The child puts houses, hotels,
and dice in her mouth and
plays with “Chance” cards
Active play with a child is most
effective at this stage. Encourage
explorations in touching, smelling,
and manipulating objects.
Peekaboo is a good way to
establish the permanence of
objects
Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)
The period of cognitive development
when children begin to use language and
think symbolically, yet remain intuitive and
egocentric
The child plays Monopoly,
but makes up her own rules
and cannot understand
instructions
Specific examples and touching or
seeing things continues to be more
useful than verbal explanations.
Learning the concept of
conservation may be aided by
demonstrations with liquids, beads,
clay, and other substances
Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)
The period of cognitive development
during which children begin to use
concepts of time, space, volume and
number, but in ways that remain simplified
and concrete
The child understands basic
instructions and will play by
the rules but is not capable
of hypothetical transactions
dealing with mortgages,
loans, and special pacts with
other players
Children are beginning to use
generalizations, but they still require
specific examples to grasp many
ideas. Expect a degree of
inconsistency in the child’s ability to
apply concepts of time, space,
quantity, and volume to new
situations
Formal Operations Stage (+11 years)
The period of intellectual development
marked by a capacity for abstract,
theoretical, and hypothetical thinking
The child no longer plays the
game mechanically;
complex and hypothetical
transactions unique to each
game are now possible
It is now more effective to explain
things verbally or symbolically and
to help children master general
rules and principles. Encourage the
child to create hypotheses and to
imagine how things could be
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Piaget is considered a great place to start, but many
psychologists believe that Piaget underestimates the
effects of the learning environment
Ex. Children who grow up in a village where pottery
is constructed will be able to correctly answer
questions about the conservation of clay earlier than
what he predicted
Leading theorists claim that children continuously
gain specific knowledge, not undergo a stage-like
leap in mental development
Many of Piaget’s observations have held up in
today’s academic world, but his explanations of
childhood thinking abilities have been debated
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Piaget claimed that infants do not possess the ability to
think
Once an object is out of sight, it ceases to exist
We now know that infants start shaping their world from
the moment of birth, and by 3 months of age they appear
to know that objects are solid and do not disappear when
out of sight
Piaget most likely mistook babies’ limited physical skills for
mental incompetence
Piaget required babies to actively search for objects or to
reach out and touch them (physical limitations are
involved)
Babies, like adults, are surprised when they witness an
impossible event occur
Shows that they must have some memory of the object
even though they lost sight of it
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Piaget stressed maturation in cognitive
development
Lev Vygotsky focuses on sociocultural factors;
children’s thinking develops through dialogues
with more capable persons
All children learn about life from various
different “tutors”, but each culture teaches
children different ways of thinking and specific
intellectual skills that are valued by that society
Piaget and Vygotsky both believe that children
actively seek to discover new principles, but
Vygostky emphasizes that important
“discoveries” are guided by skilled tutors
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“Annie, a 4-year old, has just received her first
jigsaw puzzle as a birthday present. She
attempts to work the puzzle but gets nowhere
until her father comes along, sits down beside
her, and gives her some tips. He suggests that
it would be a good idea to put together the
corners first, points to the pink area at the edge
of one corner piece and says, “Let’s look for
another pink piece.” When Annie seems
frustrated, he places two interlocking pieces
near each other so that she will notice them,
and when Annie succeeds, he offers words of
encouragement. As Annie gradually gets the
hand of it, he steps back and lets her work
more and more independently.”
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Zone of proximal development – Refers to the range of tasks
a child cannot yet master alone, but that she or he can
accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner
Some tasks are just beyond a child’s mental capabilities, or
is a little to complex to master alone, but if they work within
this zone of proximal development can make rapid progress
Scaffolding – The process of adjusting instruction so that it is
responsive to a beginner’s behavior and supports the
beginner’s efforts to understand a problem or gain a
mental skill
Adults help children to grasp a concept by scaffolding, or
supporting their attempts to solve problems or discover
principles
Annie’s father helped by setting up bridges within her
comprehension to help guide her through the process of
piecing together a puzzle and helped her to move into a
new territory
Review (3-5)
A. Sensorimotor B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational D. Formal operations
B Egocentric thought
C Conservation
• 1.___
5.___
D Abstract or hypothetical
C Reversibility thought
• 2.___
6.___
• 3.___
7.___
A Purposeful movement
A Object permanence
B Intuitive thought
A Nonverbal
• 4.___
8.___
development
• 9. Assimilation refers to applying existing thought patters or
knowledge to new situations. T or F?
• 10. Newer methods for testing infant thinking abilities
surprised by
frequently make note of whether an infant is ________
impossible events.
seemingly _________
• 11. Vygotsky called the process of providing a temporary
framework of supports for learning new metal abilities
_________.
scaffolding
• 12. Using Piaget’s theory as a guide, at what age would you
expect a child to recognize that a Styrofoam cup has weight?
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Adolescence – The culturally defined period
between childhood and adulthood; no longer a
child, but not quite an adult
Considered a time of transition, usually turbulent,
where a person’s identity and moral values come
into focus
Adolescence is subjective to culture. 14 year old girls
here are in school living with parents; other countries
they might already be married with children
Is marriage the primary criterion for adult status in
North America?
Largely no. Top 3 criteria:
1. Taking responsibility for oneself
2. Making independent decisions
3. Becoming financially independent
Puberty = biological
Adolescence = cultural
Puberty – The biologically defined period
during which a person matures sexually and
becomes capable of reproduction
 Caused by hormones effecting physical
growth and sexual maturity
 Social and intellectual maturity may take
longer as is evident in the many poor
choices adolescents make; teen
pregnancy and drug addiction
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Maturing early for boys tends to be beneficial by enhancing
their self image and gives them a social and athletic
advantage
Early-maturing boys tend to be more relaxed, dominant,
self-assured, and popular, but are more prone to trouble
with drugs, alcohol, and antisocial behavior
Maturing early for girls is not necessarily as positive
They are usually less popular and have poor self-images
due to their larger size to their classmates
By junior high, sexual features start prevailing which leads to
adult approval, more positive body image, and greater
peer prestige
Early maturing girls tend to date earlier and are more
independent and active in school, but like the boys are
more prone to negative social activities and behaviors
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Puberty often signals that it is time to make a
new, more mature self-image
Problems exist with how society define
adolescents which can then be confusing to
an adolescent while they try to define who
they are
Are they adults or children?; Should they work
or play?’; Should they be autonomous or
dependent?
Adolescents have reached the stage of formal
operations and can seriously ask and consider
“Who am I?”. This involves looking at morals,
values, politics, and social relationships
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Today more and more people are opting to
extend their identity formation into their 20’s
before they commit to long-term choices in
love or work
Western industrialized societies are becoming
more tolerant to this period of extended
adolescence
Eventually we all have to face the primary
adult issues of marriage, children, and career
One important part of the struggle to finding
yourself during adolescence is the struggle with
right and wrong; this is a critical time to
develop moral values
Read pg 104
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A woman in pain from a terminal illness is
pleading for death. Will you do it?
A friend needs you help in passing a test
through cheating. Will you do it?
Both questions regard morals, or questions of
conscience
Moral development – The development of
values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that act as
a guide regarding what is acceptable
behavior
Moral issues are illuminated during
adolescence and the transition to adulthood
due to new capacities on self-control and an
increase in abstract thinking
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Read prompt and be prepared to discuss you
opinion
“A woman was near death from cancer, and
there was only one drug that might save her. It
was discovered by a druggist who was
charging 10 times what it cost to make the
drug. The sick woman’s husband could only
pay $1,000, but the druggist wanted $2,000. He
asked the druggist to sell it for cheaper or let
him pay later. The druggist said no. So the
husband became desperate and broke into
the store to steal the drug for his wife. Should
he have done that? Was it wrong or right?
Why? What action should the husband take?
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Lawrence Kohlberg asked this question to a range of
people with the idea that moral values are developed
through thinking and reasoning
Kohlberg classified the reasons given and indentified three
levels of moral development each not based on the
choices made, but on the reasoning used to arrive at that
choice
Preconventional moral reasoning – The development of
values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that act as a guide
regarding what is acceptable behavior
Moral thinking revolves around consequences of actions
(punishment, reward, or an exchange of favors)
“The man shouldn’t steal the drug because he could get
caught and sent to jail” (avoiding punishment)
“It won’t do him any good to steal the drug because his
wife will probably die before he gets out of jail”(self-interest)
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Conventional moral reasoning – Moral thinking based on a
desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and
values
“He shouldn’t steal the drug because others will think he is a
thief. His wife would not want to be saved by
thievery”(avoiding disapproval)
“Although his wife needs the drug, he should not break the
law to get it. Everyone has to obey the law. His wife’s
condition does not justify stealing”(traditional morality of
authority)
Postconventional moral reasoning – Moral thinking based
on carefully examined and self-chosen moral principles
High value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality
“He should steal the drug and then inform the authorities
that he has done so. He will have to face a penalty, but he
will have saved a human life”(self-chosen ethical principles)
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People advance at different rates and some never
reach the postconventional or conventional level
English survey asked the question “Would you commit
murder for $1 million if you were assured that you
would get away with the crime?”
11 percent of men and 3 percent of women said
they would commit murder
Preconventional level is most characteristic of young
children and delinquents
Conventional level is representative of the majority of
society
Kohlberg estimated that only about 20 percent of
adults reach the postconventional stage
representing self-direction and higher principles
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Carol Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s system is
concerned mainly with justice
Argues that there is an ethic of caring about
others
The Porcupine and the Moles
› “Seeking refuge from the cold, a porcupine asked to
share a cave for the winter with a family of moles.
The moles agreed. But because the cave was small,
they soon found they were being scratched each
time the porcupine moved about. Finally, they
asked the porcupine to leave. But the porcupine
refused, saying, “If you moles are not satisfied, I
suggest that you leave.”
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How do you solve their problem?
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Boys who read this story opt for justice and argue that
it was the mole’s house, they have the right to kick
out the porcupine
Girls tend to look for solutions that will make all parties
happy; place a blanket over the porcupine
Gilligan argues that male psychologists argue that
moral maturity is to be defined in terms of justice and
autonomy
This would make women’s concerns with relationships
a weakness and would place them on the
conventional level of Kohlberg’s system
Gilligan argues that caring is an important part of
moral development and males are generally lacking
in this area
Alternate studies have found no
difference in boys and girls overall moral
reasoning abilities
 Both men and women use justice and
caring to make moral choices
 The best moral choices combine justice
and caring, reason and emotion, or
wisdom
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Review (3-6)
•
•
•
1. In North America the primary criterion for the transition
from adolescence to adulthood is marriage. T or F?
2. Identify formation is spurred by _______
puberty and
___________________.
cognitive development
3. According to Jeffrey Arnett, the trend in affluent
Westernized cultures toward allowing young people to take
longer to settle into their adult roles is best referred to as
• A. Emerging adulthood
• B. Hurried childhood
•
•
•
•
•
C. A maturity gap
D. Extended adolescence
4. According to Kohlberg, the conventional level or moral
development is marked by a reliance on outside authority.
T or F?
5. Self-interest and avoiding punishment are elements of
postconventional morality. T or F?
6. About 80 percent of all adults function at the
postconventional level of moral reasoning. T or F?
7. Gilligan regards gaining a sense of justice as the principal
basis of moral development. T or F?
8. Are labels like “adolescent” or “young adult” reflective of
heredity or environment?
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Developed by Erik Erikson
Argues that we face psychosocial dilemmas or a “crisis”
throughout our life and this divides our life into stages
Each stage presents a developmental task that must be
mastered for optimal development
Developmental task – Any skill that must be mastered, or
personal change that must take place, for optimal
development
Psychosocial dilemma – A conflict between personal
impulses and the social world
Resolving each dilemma creates an equilibrium between a
person and that society; multiple successes creates a
healthy and satisfying life
Life can become stunted and difficult if you do not
navigate these dilemmas correctly
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Stage one, first year of life: Trust versus Mistrust
A basic attitude of trust or mistrust develops at this time due to nature of
being completely dependent upon another human
Trust versus mistrust – A conflict early in life about learning to trust others
and the world
Trust = receiving warmth, touching, love, and physical care
Mistrust = inadequate or unpredictable care from parents who are cold,
indifferent, and rejecting
Mistrust may cause insecurity, suspiciousness, or an inability to relate to
others
Age
Characteristic Dilemma
Birth to 1 year
Trust versus mistrust
1 to 3 years
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3 to 5 years
Initiative versus guilt
6 to 12 years
Industry versus inferiority
Adolescence
Identity versus role confusion
Young adulthood
Intimacy versus isolation
Middle adulthood
Generativity versus stagnation
Late adulthood
Integrity versus dispair
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Stage two, 1 – 3 years: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Autonomy versus shame and doubt – A conflict created when
growing self-control (autonomy) is pitted against feelings of
shame and doubt
Children start to express their self-control by climbing, touching,
exploring, and trying to do things for themselves
Parents who encourage the use of new skills despite falling,
wetting, and falling will lean towards autonomy
If parents ridicule or are overprotective of their child, then child
will feel shameful about their actions and will start to doubt their
abilities
Stage three, 3 – 5 years: Initiative versus Guilt
Initiative versus guilt – A conflict between learning to take
initiative and overcoming feelings of guilt about doing so
Through play children learn to make plans and carry out tasks
Parents reinforce initiative by granting children the freedom to
play, ask questions, use imagination, and choose activities
Guilt can be created if parents criticize severely, prevent play, or
discourage a child’s questions
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Stage four, 6 – 12 years: Industry versus Inferiority
Industry versus inferiority – A conflict in the middle childhood
centered around lack of support for industrious behavior, which
can result in feelings of inferiority
Upon entering school, your world opens up at a very quick pace
away from family being your exclusive contact
School starts teaching children values that our society honor and
success or failure in this system can affect a child’s feelings of
adequacy
Children who are praised for their productive activities, such as
building, painting, cooking, reading, and studying learn a sense
of industry
If a child is seen as messy, childish, or inadequate, inferiority may
result
This marks the first time that people outside of the family’s
opinions become important enough to shape a self-image
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Stage five, Adolescence: Identity versus Role
Confusion
Identity versus role confusion – A conflict of
adolescence, involving the need to establish a
personal identity
Need to answer “Who am I?”
Will have new feelings, a new body, and new
attitudes
Desire to create a sense of self by examining your
talents, values, life history, relationships, and the
demands from your culture
If you fail to be able to integrate all of these ideas
into who you are, you will experience role confusion
and have an uncertainty about who you are and
where you are going
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Stage six, young adulthood: Intimacy versus Isolation
Intimacy versus isolation – The challenge of overcoming a
sense of isolation by establishing intimacy with others
After you have developed your sense of identity, you are
prepared to share meaningful love and deep friendships
with others
Erikson defines intimacy as having the ability to care about
others and to share experiences with them
Many young adults have this goal, and many will get
married, but few actually achieve his defined level of
intimacy
Failure to make these deep connections will give you a
sense of isolation (feeling alone and uncared for in life)
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Stage seven, Middle Adulthood: Generativity versus
stagnation
Generativity versus stagnation – A conflict of middle
adulthood in which self-interest is countered by an
interest in guiding the next generation
Generativity provides an emotional balance in
mature adulthood, by caring about ones-self, one’s
children, and future generations
A person’s concerns and energies must broaden to
include welfare of others and society as a whole
Failure to do this, results in a person loosing meaning
in life and feel bitter, dreary, and trapped
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Stage eight, late adulthood: Integrity versus despair
Integrity versus despair – A conflict in old age
between feelings of integrity and the despair of
viewing previous life events with regret
Older age is a time of reflection; have a need to look
back on your life with acceptance and satisfaction
People with rich lives develop a sense of integrity
(self-respect)
A person faces despair if they have not lived up to
their potential, and life will seem like a series of
missed opportunities that are now too late to reverse
Aging and the threat of death then become sources
of fear and depression
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Carol Ryff offers that there are other conflicts outside
of what Erikson found that adults must face and
manage
Marital strife, divorce, career difficulties,
unemployment, health problems, financial pressures,
legal conflicts, and personal tragedies are just a few
of the additional problems facing adults
Ryff claims that well-being during adulthood has 6
elements: Self-acceptance, Positive relations with
others, Autonomy (freedom), Environmental mastery,
A purpose in life, & Continued personal growth
Sharing life’s joys and sorrows and having a better
understanding of how the world works helps to offset
many of the negatives during midlife
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Serious difficulties during midlife are not universal
Only about a quarter of people during their midlifes
have experienced a crisis
Roger Gould argues that adults experience two crisis
points in their development
Argues that around the age of 30 people
experience a minor life crisis where there is some
serious questioning of what life is all about (Crisis of
Questions)
Confidence in previous choices starts to waver and
people might actively seek a style of life that will
bring more meaning
Marriages are often vulnerable at this time of
dissatisfaction
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People in their 30’s and 40’s start to become
more aware of the reality of death
Intensified attempts are made to succeed at a
career or achieve a life goal
Generativity in the form of nurturing, teaching,
or serving others helps to alleviate some of the
anxiety of this stage
Transition period – Time span during which a
person leaves an existing life pattern behind
and moves into a new pattern
Daniel Levinson coins this term and argues that
at these times people address concerns about
their identity, their work, and relationships to
others
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Levinson studied men as they approached the midlife transition
(ages 37 – 41)
Found that most men went through a period of instability, anxiety,
and change; later found that women have these same
symptoms
Half of the men studies defined the midlife point as the “last
chance”; would be their last opportunity to reach a goal or key
event (supervisor, reaching a certain income)
There was increased stress, but it was manageable
Smaller percentage of men experienced a serious midlife decline
Either realized they had picked a dead-end career or lifestyle or
had achieved financial success but felt what they were doing
was pointless
One small group of people chose to “break out” of a flawed
lifestyle and started over on a new course of 8 to 10 years of
rebuilding
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Women are less likely to enter adulthood
with specific goals
This leaves them to be less likely to define
success on some key event
Women seek changes in personal identity
at midlife instead of some external goal
Ex. Woman might become more self-reliant
and independent – which were qualities
she saw as masculine earlier in life
Two-thirds of women surveyed claimed they
had a major change in their lives between
ages 37 and 43
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After the late 50’s, personal development is complicated by
physical aging
Not all old people are sickly, infirm, or senile
Only about 5 percent of people older than 65 are in nursing
homes
Intellectual tests show that older men are just as capable
(mentally) as men younger than 35
Warner Schair makes points on how to stay mentally sharp as you
enter old age
› 1. You remain healthy
› 2. You live in a favorable environment (You are educated and have a
stimulating occupation, an above-average income and an intact family)
› 3. You are involved in intellectually stimulating activities (reading, travel,
cultural events, continuing education, clubs, professional associations)
› 4.You have a flexible personality
› 5. You are married to a smart spouse
› 6. You maintain your perceptual processing speed
› 7. You were satisfied with your accomplishments in midlife
What are the keys to successful aging?
Optimism, hope, and interest in the future
Gratitude and forgiveness; an ability to
focus on what is good in life
 Empathy; an ability to share the feelings of
others and see the world through their eyes
 Connection with others; an ability to reach
out, to give and receive social support
 We should not just throw away old people
and see them as useless since they still can
have a lot to offer
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Ageism – Discrimination or prejudice based on a person’s age
This applies to all ages, but older individuals encounter this more
In Japan, ageism is seen as a sign of respect and greater status the older
you get
Most western nations view this as a negative
When expressed to old people, it is usually done through patronizing
language; spoken in an overly polite, slow, loud, and simple way that
implies they are infirm
These steriotypes are wrong since there are an array of old people’s
abilities
Older workers perform well in jobs that require both speed and skill
We do experience a gradual loss of fluid abilities (those requiring speed
or rapid learning)
Loss of fluid abilities are often offset by crystallized abilities (learned
knowledge and skills; vocabulary and stored facts)
Many professions allow wisdom and expertise to compensate for any
loss of mental quickness
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Everybody dies and yet very few of us are prepared for the
emotional responses that we undergo at the conclusion of
your life
Older people have fewer death fears than younger people
Older people often fear the circumstances of death, pain
or helplessness, rather than death itself
This could be more due to a denial of death than a general
lack of fear of death
We are often in denial about death whenever we address
it; “gone to God” or “expired”
Many people have very little exposure to death until they
become old themselves
Average person’s exposure to death is actually quite high
due to tv, but these deaths are often unrepresentative since
the clear majority are homicides, not from old age
Thanatologist – A specialist who studies emotional and behavioral
reactions to death and dying
 Elisabeth Kubler-Ross spent many hours at the death beds of
individuals and observed five basic emotional reactions to
impending death
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› 1. Denial and isolation: Typical first reaction is to deny your own reality
and isolate yourself from the people who are showing you that reality
› “the lab reports have been mixed up or the doctor made an error.”
› 2. Anger: Many dying individual feel anger at their situation and lash out
at the living in their fit of jealousy
› 3. Bargaining: The terminally ill might start bargaining with themselves or
God by claiming that if they are allowed more time they will do
something better with that time
› 4. Depression: Person finally starts to recognize the futility of their situation,
and depression can start to set in as they realize they will be separated
from their loved ones
› 5,Acceptance: The person comes to grips with the concept of death
and is neither happy or sad, but at peace with the inevitable. They don’t
seek to talk about death, but just seek silent companionship with others
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Everybody does not display these reactions
and they do not always occur in this order
General trend from initial shock, denial, and
anger towards eventual acceptance
One’s approach to dying will mirror his or
her style of living
Kubler-Ross’s list is just a list of typical
reactions to impending death
Important to note that this list is also
reflective of any major loss, be it divorce,
loss of a home due to fire, death of a pet,
or loss of a job
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This can help both dying and survivors to deal with periods of depression,
anger, denial, and bargaining
Helps friends or relatives to realize that they are all sharing the same
emotions
Important to not that a dying person has a need to discuss their feelings
and death with others
Often times the dying will feel isolated because adults tend to “freeze
up” around the topic of death
Advice for dealing with the dying:
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Be yourself and relate person to person
Be ready to listen again and again
Be respectful
Be aware of feelings and nonverbal cues
Be comfortable with silence
Be genuine
Most of all, be there
Hospice care has been created to help improve the quality of life for the
dying.
 Helps to ensure that the dying person is made comfortable and feels
love and respect
 As each of us faces the end of life, to die well may be no less an
accomplishment than to live well
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Review (3-7)
Stage
Crisis
Favorable Outcome
First year of life
1.____________
Trust
vs.
Faith in the environment and in
others
Mistrust
2.____________
Ages 1 – 3
Autonomy
vs.
Shame/Doubt
3.____________
Ages 3 – 5
4.____________
Initiative
vs.
Guilt
Ages 6 – 12
Industry
Confidence in productive skills,
learning how to work
6.____________
Identity
vs.
An integrated image of oneself
as a unique person
Role confusion
Young Adulthood
Intimacy
vs.
Isolation
7.____________
Middle Adulthood
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
8.____________
Late Adulthood
Ability to being one’s own
activities
vs.
Inferiority
5.____________
Adolescence
Feelings of self-control and
adequacy
9.____________
Integrity
vs.
Despair
10.___________
Ability to form bonds of love
and friendship with others
Concern for family, society, and
future generations
Sense of dignity and
fulfillment, willingness to face
death
Review (3-7 con’t)
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11. Nearly everyone experiences a midlife
crisis sometime around age 40. T or F?
12. After age 65, a large proportion of older
people show significant signs of mental
disability and most require special care.
T or F?
13. Job performance tends to decline rapidly in
older workers. T or F?
14. In the reaction that Kubler-Ross describes
as bargaining, they dying individual asks,
“Why me?” T or F?
15. Trying o make generalizations about
development throughout life is complicated by
at least one major factor. What do you think it
is?