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Genetics and Heredity
Genetics
The study of heredity, how traits are passed from
parent to offspring
or
x
=
or
The study of heredity started
with the work of Gregor Mendel and his
pea plant garden
Mendel was an Austrian Monk that lived
in the mid 1800’s
Inheritance Theory
Prior to Mendel
1. Traits “blended”
• Trait: characteristics to be passed from
parent to offspring
• “bloodlines”: thought traits passed through
the blood
2. Problem with blending: cannot account for
unexpected traits
Mendel noted that the size of pea
plants varied. He cross-bred these
pea plants to find some surprising
results.
Steps of
Mendel's
Experiment
Mendel’s cross between tall pea plants yielded all
tall pea plants. His cross between small pea plants
yielded all small pea plants.
X
=
X
=
Mendels’ cross between tall pea plants and small pea
plants yielded all tall pea plants.
x
=
Here we crossed two peas which contained
both tall and short information.
T
t
T
TT
Tt
t
Tt
tt
When Mendel crossed these second generation tall
pea plants he ended up with 1 out 4 being small.
x
=
A cross in which only one trait is
studied is called monohybrid cross .
5. Mendel named every generation:
Starting generation –
P (parent) generation.
The following offspring
generation was called
F1 - first generation (daughter
generation),
F2 - second filial generation, and
so on.
P
F1
F2
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
•Seed coat color - white or GRAY
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
•Seed coat color - white or GRAY
•Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
•Seed coat color - white or GRAY
•Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH
•Pod color - yellow or GREEN
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel studied a number of characteristics in pea plants
including:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
•Seed coat color - white or GRAY
•Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH
•Pod color - yellow or GREEN
•Flower position - terminal or AXIAL
Mendelian Genetics
We will work with the following three:
•Height - short or TALL
•Seed color - green or YELLOW
•Seed shape - wrinkled or ROUND
•Seed coat color - white or GRAY
•Pod shape - constricted or SMOOTH
•Pod color - yellow or GREEN
•Flower position - terminal or AXIAL
Mendel’s work led him to the understanding
that traits such as plant height are carried in
pairs of information not by single sets of
information.
-Carrying the information are chromosomes.
-Chromosomes are made up of sections
called genes.
-Genes are made up of DNA
DNA
D.N.A. - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Molecule made of:
1. Deoxy Sugar
2. Combination of four nitrogen bases
Either: a. Guanine
b. Cytocine
c. Thymine
d. Adenine
The sum total of combinations that these
four bases are capable of creating are
greater than all the stars visible in the night
time sky
DNA
• Nitrogen bases pair up
– Cytosine & Guanine
– Thymine & Adenine
• Pairing creates a ladder shape
• Angle of bonds creates a twist
Ladder and Twist produces the famous
“Double Helix”
DNA
Cell
• DNA resides in all cells
– Inside the nucleus
• Each strand forms a chromosome
Nucleus
DNA
DNA
DNA is found in all living cells
– It controls all functions
inside a cell
– It stores all the genetic
information for an entire
living organism
– Single cell like an amoeba
– Multi cell like a human
Genetics
Small sections of DNA are responsible for a
“trait”. These small sections are called
“Genes”.
– Gene - A segment of DNA that codes for a
specific trait
– Trait - A characteristic an organism
can pass on to it’s offspring
through DNA
Gene
Phenotype
• Phenotype
– Physical
characteristics
Genotype
• Phenotype
– Physical
characteristics
• Genotype
– Genes we inherit from
our parents
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
– Facial structure
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
– Facial structure
– Eyes
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
– Facial structure
– Eyes
– Smile
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
–
–
–
–
Facial structure
Eyes
Smile
Ears
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
–
–
–
–
–
Facial structure
Eyes
Smile
Ears
Nose
Phenotype
Notice the similarities:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Facial structure
Eyes
Smile
Ears
Nose
Neck
Genetics
There are three basic kinds of genes:
– Dominant - A gene that is always expressed
and hides others
– Recessive - A gene that is only expressed
when a dominant gene isn’t present
– Codominant - Genes that work together to
produce a third trait
Predicting Inheritance
To determine the chances of inheriting a given
trait, scientists use Punnett squares and symbols
to represent the genes.
UPPERCASE letters
dominant genes.
are
used
to
represent
lowercase letters are used to represent recessive
genes.
Predicting Inheritance
For example:
T = represents the gene for TALL in pea plants
t = represents the gene for short in pea plants
So:
TT & Tt both result in a TALL plant, because T is
dominant over t. t is recessive.
tt will result in a short plant.
Remember there are two genes for every trait! One from each
parent.
Predicting Inheritance
For example:
Mendels’ Principle of Dominance
T = represents the gene for TALL in pea plants
tSome
= represents
the gene
short inand
pea others
plants are
genes (alleles)
arefor
dominant
recessive. The phenotype (trait) of a dominant gene
will be seen when it is paired with a recessive gene.
So:
TT & Tt both result in a TALL plant, because T is
dominant over t. t is recessive.
tt will result in a short plant.
Remember there are two genes for every trait!
Predicting Inheritance
Let’s cross a totally dominant tall plant (TT) with a
short plant (tt).
Each plant will give only one of its’ two genes to
the offspring or F1 generation.
TT x tt
T
T
t
t
Predicting Inheritance
Let’s cross a totally dominant tall plant (TT) with a
short plant
(tt). “Law” of Segregation
Mendels’
Each plant will give only one of its’ two genes to
Eachoffspring
gene (allele)
from the other so that
the
or F1separates
generation.
the offspring get only one gene from each parent for a
given trait.
TT x tt
T
T
t
t
Punnett Squares
Tt
Tt
The genes from one parent go here.
The genes from the other parent go
here.
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
T
T
t
Tt
Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
T
T
t
Tt
Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
T
T
t
Tt
Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
T
T
t
Tt
Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
T
T
t
Tt
Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Punnett Squares
t
t
T
T
Tt
Tt
Tt
Tt
F1 generation
Interpreting the Results
The genotype for all the offspring is Tt.
The genotype ratio is:
Tt - 4/4
The phenotype for all the offspring is tall.
The phenotype ratio is:
tall - 4/4
So Let’s Apply What We Know
Genetics
Dominant and Recessive Genes
•
A dominant gene will always
mask a recessive gene.
•
A “widows peak” is dominant,
not having a widows peak is
recessive.
•
If one parent contributes a
gene for a widows peak, and the
other parent doesn’t, the offspring will have a widows peak.
Widows Peak
Genetics
We can use a “Punnet Square” to determine
what pairs of genes Lilly has
• A Punnet Square
begins with a box 2 x 2
Assume Lilly is heterozygous
Ww
Assume Herman is homoozygous
recessive
ww
• One gene is called an
“allele”
W
w
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww
ww
• One parents pair is
split into alleles on top,
the other along the side
• Each allele is crossed
with the other allele to
predict the traits of the
offspring
Genetics
Notice that when Lilly is crossed with
Herman, we would predict that half the
offspring would be “Ww”, the other half
would be “ww”
Half “Ww”, Heterozygous, and will
have a widows peak
Half “ww”, Homozygous, and
will not have a widows peak
W
w
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww
ww
Genetics
Punnet Square - A tool we use for predicting
the traits of an offspring
– Letters are used as symbols to designate genes
– Capital letters are used for dominant genes
– Lower case letters are used for
recessive genes
– Genes always exist in pairs
Genetics
A Widows Peak, dominant, would be symbolized
with a capital “W”, while no widows peak,
recessive, would be symbolized with a
lower case “w”.
Father - No Widows Peak - w
Mother - Has a Widows Peak - W
Genetics
All organisms have two copies of each gene, one
contributed by the father, the other contributed
by the mother.
Homozygous - Two copies of the same gene
Heterozygous - Two different genes
Genetics
For the widows peak:
WW - has a widows peak
Ww - has a widows peak
ww - no widows peak
Homozygous dominant
Heterozygous
Homozygous recessive
Genetics
Since Herman has no widows peak, he must
be “ww”, since Lilly has a widows peak she
could be either “WW” or “Ww”
Definitely ww
Either Ww
or WW
Homozygous
recessive
Heterozygous
Homozygous
dominant
Genetics
Another possibility is that Lilly might be
“WW”, homozygous dominant.
Assume Lilly is homozygous
dominant
WW
W
Assume Herman is homoozygous
ww
W
w
Ww Ww
w
Ww Ww
Notice that all the
offspring are
heterozygous and will
have a widows peak
Genetics
So which is true? Is Lilly homozygous
dominant (WW) or is she heterozygous
(Ww)?
W
w
W
W
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww Ww
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww Ww
Genetics
If Lilly were heterozygous,
then 1/2 of their offspring
should have a widows peak,
1/ shouldn’t
2
If Lilly were homozygous, all
of their children will have a
widows peak
W
w
W
W
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww Ww
w
Ww
ww
w
Ww Ww
Genetics
Recall that Herman and Lilly had another
offspring, Marylin. She had no widows peak,
therefore, Lilly must be heterozygous.
Genetics
So, back to the original question. What color
hair will the offspring of Prince Charming
and Snow White have?
Genetics
Hair color is different from widows peak, no
color is truly dominant.
– Brown and blond are the two, true traits
– Homozygous conditions produce either brown
or blond hair
– Heterozygous conditions produce red hair
Genetics
For Snow White to have brown hair she
must be homozygous dominant, “BB”, a
blond Prince Charmin must be
homozygous recessive, “bb”.
B
B
b
Bb
Bb
b
Bb
Bb
Genetics
Hair color is a perfect example of a
trait
What color hair
should their children
have?
Prince Charming
is blond
Snow White
has dark hair
Genetics
All the offspring from Prince Charming and
Snow White will therefore be heterozygous,
“Bb”, and since hair color is codominant…..
all their children will have red hair.
+
http://www.bozemanscience.com
/beginners-guide-to-punnettsquares
•
TEST CROSS
• Cross between an organism with an
unknown genotype and an organism with
the recessive phenotype.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IK5QW
1UfAuI
• Complete page test cross on page 185
Cell Division
(Meiosis)
1. A process of cell
division where the
number of chromasomes
is cut in half
2. Occurs in gonads
(testes, ovaries, stamens,
etc)
3. Makes gametes
(sperm, ova, pollen, etc)