Transcript Blood & circulation

The Cardiovascular
System
HOMEOSTASIS:

Focus on TWO
General
Schematic
CIRCUITS of the
Circulatory
System
 PULMONARY
 SYSTEMIC
The
PULMONARY
route which is
circulation to and
from the lungs
 The SYSTEMIC
route which is to
and from the body

PULMONARY ROUTE:
RESPIRATORY CIRCUIT:

Pulmonary arteries – heart to the lungs.
 In
the lungs gas exchange occurs.
Pulmonary veins – lungs to heart.
 HOMEOSTASIS: the maintenance of
oxygen for cellular respiration and
removal of carbon dioxide, a byproduct of respiration.

Respiration
The physiological process by which
organisms supply oxygen to their cells

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External Respiration – exchange between
body & environment (inhale/exhale)
Internal Respiration – exchange between
internal body fluids (blood and cells)
Cellular Respiration – oxidation of glucose
and synthesis of ATP

Alveoli – single-celled-thick wall air sacs that
are highly covered in capillaries.
This allows for:
 easy diffusion of inhaled oxygen from the
air sacs into the blood stream
 diffusion of carbon dioxide in the blood
stream back into the air sacs so it can be
exhaled.

Our cellular reactions require oxygen.

The O2 binds to the erythrocytes (red
blood cells) onto the haemoglobin (Hb
abbreviation), which circulates in large
numbers.
From the lungs, the oxygenated blood is
pumped back to the heart where O2 is
then pumped into the systemic route—to
all tissues of the body.
 O2 diffuses across the capillary wall into
the body cells where mitochondria use it
to carry out respiration for energy
production.

This releases CO2 into the blood stream
by diffusion
 The CO2 dissolves into the blood plasma
and becomes carbonic acid (H2CO3)



i.e. H2O + CO2 H2CO3
Hb (now low in oxygen) binds an H+ which
prevents our blood from becoming too
acidic.
is what buffers our blood – keeps the pH
around 7.4.
 This
The now deoxygenated (oxygen poor)
blood is high in CO2
 it returns to the heart in large veins called
the vena cava
superior – from the head;
inferior – from the rest of the body)
 The blood is now pumped back to the
lungs for gas exchange to start over.

HOMEOSTASIS and the
Metabolic Circuit
The aorta is the main artery of systemic
circuit.
 The vena cava are the main veins of the
systemic circuit.
 Blood from the heart that is well
oxygenated but nutrient poor travels
through the aorta to the digestive tract.


Capillaries in the villi of the intestines and
the stomach lining allow the diffusion of
essential nutrients into the blood steam
 proteins,
amino acids, sugars, fats (into the
lacteals of the lymphatic system).
Oxygen is delivered to these cells as well.
 These digestion products are carried to
the liver (HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM)
where the blood is filtered and toxins
metabolized.


The blood stream then carries these
nutrients to all body cells
 where
they diffuse across the cell membranes
while cell wastes from metabolism diffuse out
(carbon dioxide and N-containing wastes of
protein metabolism).
The “polluted” blood is eventually
transported to the kidneys (RENAL
SYSTEM) where the wastes in the blood
are filtered out and concentrated into
urine.
 The “cleaned” blood that is both nutrient
poor and oxygen poor then streams back
to the heart.

Angiogram
Angioplasty
Coronary Bypass
BLOOD (a fluid tissue)
Plasma is the liquid component of the
blood..
 Plasma
is about 60 % of a volume of
blood; cells and fragments are 40%.
 Of this, plasma is 90% water and 10%
dissolved materials including proteins,
glucose, ions, hormones, and gases.
 It acts as a buffer, maintaining blood pH
near 7.4.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells, rbc), are
flattened, doubly concave cells about 7 µm
in diameter that carry oxygen associated in
the cell's hemoglobin. 1 mm is 1/1000 of
a mm
• Mature erythrocytes lack a
nucleus (enucleated) and
mitochondria.
• They are small, 4 to 6 million
cells per cubic millimeter of blood,
and have 200 million
hemoglobin molecules per cell.
We have a total of 25 trillion rbc (about
1/3 of all the cells in the body).
 Red blood cells are continuously
manufactured in red marrow of long
bones, ribs, skull, and vertebrae.
 Life-span of an erythrocyte is only 120
days, after which they are destroyed in
liver and spleen.

Iron from hemoglobin is recovered and
reused by red marrow. The liver degrades
the heme units and secretes them as
pigment in the bile, responsible for the
color of feces.
 Each second two million red blood cells
are produced to replace those thus taken
out of circulation.
 Cannot move independently and rely on
the heart to move them

Leukocytes (white blood cells, wbc),
are larger than erythrocytes, have a
nucleus and mitochondria, and lack
hemoglobin.
 White blood cells are best known for their
ability to help fight off infection and
illness.
 When the body creates additional white
blood cells, it runs a fever.

White blood cells propel themselves in an
amoebic fashion.
 White blood cells are able to seek out an
infection site outside of the blood stream
thanks to their ability to move
independently.
 They are able to make their way through
the pores within the walls of the
capillaries in order to fight infections that
are not within the blood stream.
 This action of movement through the walls
of the capillaries is known as diapedesis.
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1.
White blood cells (leukocytes) are less
than 1% of the blood's volume.
They are made from stem cells in bone
marrow.
There are five types of leukocytes,
important components of the immune
system.
Neutrophils enter the tissue fluid by
squeezing through capillary walls and
phagocytozing foreign substances.
2.
3.
Eosinophils also fight infection, they are
acid loving and will secrete a harmful
toxin into parasites to kill them. They
also are responsible in our allergy
responses. Although they are not
suppose to accumulate in the lungs, in
asthmatics they do—this is being
studied.
Macrophages release white blood cell
growth factors, causing a population
increase for white blood cells.
4.
Basophils play a central role in
inflammatory and immediate allergic
reactions.

They are able to release potent
inflammatory mediators, such as histamine,
serotonin and other factors that act on the
vasculature, smooth muscle, connective
tissue, mucous glands and inflammatory
cells.
 They are responsible for the hyper-activity of
an allergy response
5.
Lymphocytes and MONOCYTES fight
infection.

T-cells attack cells containing viruses.

B-cells produce antibodies.
• Antigen-antibody complexes are phagocytized by a
macrophage.
Platelets
 Result
from cell fragmentation and are
involved with clotting.
They
carry chemicals essential to blood
clotting.
Platelets survive for 10 days before being
removed by the liver and spleen.
There are 150,000 to 300,000 platelets in
each milliliter of blood.
Platelets stick and adhere to tears in blood
vessels; they also release clotting factors.
Hemophilia
A hemophiliac's blood cannot clot.
 Providing correct proteins (clotting factors)
has been a common method of treating
hemophiliacs.
 It has also led to HIV transmission due to
the use of transfusions and use of
contaminated blood products.

http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/blood/blood.htm
BLOOD CLOTTING and WOUND
HEALING
Platelets are vital to the blood clotting
process.
 For a clot to form, the platelets make up
nearly the entire blood clot.
 The platelet plug is reinforced by the
threads of fibrin which is activated by the
phospholipids in the cell.
 These phospholipids activate the
plasma’s blood clotting factors, creating
what is commonly seen on the outside of
the body as a scab.

The action of the platelets forming the plug
release serotonin into the blood stream.
 The serotonin encourages the body to
restrict the flow of blood.
 This constraint of the blood vessels
reduces blood flow at the injury site,
allowing the platelets to clot, form a secure
plug, and ceases the flow of blood to
outside the site of injury.

The general chain of events is seen below:
Figure 18. The formation and actions of blood clots. Images from Purves et al., Life:
The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and
WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Figure 19. Blood Clot Formation (blood cells, platelets, fibrin clot) (SEM
x10,980). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com,
used with permission.
Interactive Web Sites
Progression of Atherosclerosis
 Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)

RBC’s and Platelets
Blood Types

Antigen
 Protein
on the surface of cells. (in blood,
Allele A makes A antigen.
 Allele B makes B antigen. Allele O makes no
antigens.)
Antibody:
 Protein in plasma that reacts with specific
antigens that enter the blood (usually
something that isn't supposed to be
there!).
 (Ex.: Anti-A is an antibody that recognizes
A-antigen, binds to it (lock & key), then
causes clumping together or clotting of
similar A-antigens.)
 These are often depicted Y-shaped.

Agglutination: clumping of blood cells

Genotype: type of gene present (or
allele)

Phenotype: the expression of the gene
we observe
Everybody has a blood type.
 There are several classifications possible.
 The most common blood type
classification system is the ABO system
discovered by Karl Landsteiner in the early
1900s.
 There is also the Rh (Rhesus factor) as
well, especially important for childbirth.
 There are four types of blood in the ABO
system: A, B, AB, and O.
 There are two types of blood in the Rh
system: Rh+ and Rh-
Your blood type is established before you
are born, by specific genes inherited from
your parents.
 You receive one gene from your mother
and one from your father; these two
combine to establish your blood type.
 These genes can appear in different
versions or ALLELES. There are three
alleles of the blood type gene: A, B, and O.

These two genes determine your blood
type by causing proteins called
ANTIGENS to exist on the surface of all of
your red blood cells.
 Since everybody has two copies of these
genes, there are six possible
combinations; AA, BB, OO, AB, AO, and
BO.
 In genetic terms, these combinations are
called genotypes, and they describe the
genes you got from your parents.

In addition to the proteins (antigens)
existing on your red blood cells, other
genes make proteins called ANTIBODIES
that circulate in your blood plasma.
 Antibodies are responsible for ensuring
that only the blood cells of your blood type
exist in your body. They attack and stick
foreign red blood cells together—this
clumping is called AGGLUTINATION.

SPECIFICS of GENES
The antigen produced by the O allele has no
special enzymatic activities.
 However, the antigens produced by the A
and B alleles do have enzymatic activities,
which are different from each other.

TYPE
PHENOTYPE
Type O blood
both alleles are O
Type A blood
alleles both A, or A and O
AA or AO
Type B blood
alleles both B, or B and O
BB or BO
Type AB
allele A and allele B
4 phenotypes
GENOTYPE
6 genotypes
OO
AB
People with Type A blood have AntibodyB (anti-B) in their blood plasma.
 Anti-B helps the body destroy any type B
blood cells that might enter the circulation
system.
 Likewise, people with the BB and the BO
genotypes are said to have type B blood.
These people have antibody-A (anti-A) in
their blood plasma.
 Anti-A helps the body destroy any type A
blood cells that might enter the circulation
system.

People who have the AB genotype have
the enzyme activity associated with both
the A and B alleles.
 These people have no anti-A nor anti-B in
their blood plasma.

SPECIFICS of TYPING BLOOD
The ABO blood typing is done by taking
two drops of blood on two slides.
 Anti-A serum(antibody A) is added to one
slide. Anti-B serum is added to the other
slide.
 The antibodies will attack and agglutinate
blood cells that have the antigen-A and
antigen-B present on their surfaces.

THUS the antibodies are used to type the
same blood.
 Sometimes, Rh is also tested using anti-D.
 If there is clumping with anti-D the blood is
Rh+. If there is no clumping, it is Rh-.

In the diagram below, what is the
ABO blood type?
Sample Blood Type Problems Using Punnett
SUMMARY: Distribution and Characteristics of
Human Blood Factors
Distribution
Blood
in North
Type
America
Antigen
on Red
Blood
Cell
Will Clot
with
Can
Antibody
Can Give
Blood
Receive
in Serum
to:
From
From
Plasma
These
Donors
O
48
None
Anti-A,
Anti-B
A, B, AB
O
All
A
B
AB
42
A
Anti-B
B, AB
A&O
A & AB
7
B
Anti-A
A, AB
B&O
B & AB
2
A&B
None
None
All
AB
Donor-Recipient Summary
Type O Blood: Universal Donor as it
contains no A or B antigens, so the
receivers' blood will not clot when
given the O blood.
 Type AB Blood: Universal Receiver, as
it contains no Anti-A or Anti-B
antibodies in its plasma. It can receive
all blood types.

http://ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/science/ps/sci/soph/genetics/notes/bloodtype.htm
http://anthro.palomar.edu/vary/vary_3.htm global map distributions
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
Directions:
 Given the alleles, genotypes and phenotypes
for human blood typing ABO, solve the
following multiple allele problems.
 Other blood type systems are used in
paternity cases and crime scene analysis.
 The ABO is always the first to be performed.
 Probability is reduced from there.
 Use your notes and text as needed.
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
1. What is the expected
genotypic ratio among
children born to a
mother having the
genotype AO and a
father with the
phenotype AB?
____
____
____
____
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
2.
One parent has the
blood type A and the
other blood type B.
What are the
genotypes of the
parents if they
produce children with
only blood type AB?
____
____ x ____
____
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
3.
One parent has the
blood type A and the
other blood type B.
What are the
genotypes of the
parents if 1/2 of the
offspring are blood
type AB and the other
1/2 blood type A.
____
____ x ____
____
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
4.
One parent has the
blood type A and the
other blood type B.
What are the genotypes
of the parents if the
offspring produce the
following blood
types...1/4 AB, 1/4 A,
1/4 B, and 1/4 O?
____
____
x
____
____
5.
From the following blood types, determine which
baby belongs to which parents.
Baby 1 belongs to the _____________ Family
Baby 2 belongs to the ___________ Family
Mrs. Doe.............Type A
Mr. Doe .............Type A
Mrs. Jones .........Type A
Mr. Jones ..........Type AB
Baby 1 .............Type O
Baby 2 .............Type B
BLOOD TYPING WORKSHEET
Rh Factor and Erythroblastosis
Fetalis

In addition to the blood group (A, B, O,
AB), the Rh factor is written as either
positive (Rh+ means antigen present) or
negative (Rh- means antigen absent).
Most people are Rh+ (85% in Canada).
eg. A- (means blood type A, Rh negative)
AB+ (means blood type AB, with Rh
factor)
This factor does not effect your health
except if you are an Rh+ fetus in an Rhmother, rarely also with blood transfusions.
 RISK: A woman’s baby is at risk when
she has a negative Rh factor and her
partner has a positive Rh factor.
 See page 979

The mother’s antibodies begin clumping
the baby’s hemoglobin molecules so that
they cannot attach oxygen, breaking them
down.
 This causes a severe anemia called
“Hemolytic disease of the Newborn” or
Erythroblastosis fetalis.
 The result is massive swelling of the
newborn and can cause illness, brain
damage and even death.
 It may also be mild (jaundice) or absent.

• The result is massive swelling of the newborn and
can cause illness, brain damage and even death.
It may also be mild (jaundice) or absent.
http://www.obgyn.net/us/cotm/9902/9902.htm
Hemolytic disease can be prevented for
many infants, if their mother is not already
sensitized.
 This disease used to adversely affect 1 in
16 000 babies.
 Research at the University of Manitoba
throughout the 50s and 60s produced a
treatment that has become the world
standard for preventing this type of anemia
in infants.

Rh immunoglobulin (RhIg) is a blood
product given via injection to help the Rh
negative mother by suppressing her ability
to react to the Rh positive red cells from
her baby.
 Reactions to the medication are generally
minor, including soreness at the injection
sight and sometimes a slight fever.


The baby's blood type can be determined
easily after birth by cord blood samples.
The mother will receive an additional
injection following this if the baby is Rh+.
This helps to serve subsequent
pregnancies.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis,
Photomicrograph
BLOOD CLOTTING and WOUND HEALING
Platelets are vital to the blood clotting process-make up nearly the entire blood clot. A clot we see
on the outside of our skin is called a scab.
Clotting: The complex chain of chemical
events that produces a plug (clot) at the
site of bleeding.
 Certain medications may interfere with
clotting, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and
other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs; anticoagulants (such as
Coumadin); vitamin E; and herbal
preparations containing garlic or ginkgo
biloba.

BLOOD / LYMPH DISORDERS
A few definitions:
 hematocrit – fraction percentage of red blood
cells in blood
 CBC – complete blood count: red, white and
platelets
 Hemophilia – a bleeding disorder (many) caused
by lack of one or more clotting factors.
Treatment includes injection of clotting factors.
From a bruise

From an
injection in the
buttocks
Sickle cell anemia – a
recessive genetic blood
disorder than causes
some red blood cells to
lose their shape and
appear sickle.
 They cannot bind
oxygen properly and are
sticky.
 They tend to get stuck in
smaller blood vessels.
Usually fatal.

Leukemia – a group of
diseases where bone
marrow cells are
replaced by immature
white cells (cancer)
 notice they are not
differentiated into
neutrophils, basophils
etc. and that there are
many.


Lymphoma – a group of diseases with an
over production of lymphatic cells (cancer)
– T and B cells – high numbers in the
lymph nodes, spleen, thymus.
Malaria – caused by
protist parasites
called Plasmodium.
 It infects red blood
cells causing
anemia, pain,
tachycardia, chills,
high fevers, nausea.
In severe cases,
coma and death.

Lymphatic filariasis (elephant man
syndrome)
 The thread-like, parasitic filarial worms
Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi
that cause lymphatic filariasis live almost
exclusively in humans. These worms
lodge in the lymphatic system, the network
of nodes and vessels that maintain the
delicate fluid balance between the tissues
and blood and are an essential component
for the body's immune defence system.
