Transcript MPA 1997 talk

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Chapter 2
Current Paradigms in
Psychopathology
Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Edition
by
Ann M. Kring, Gerald C. Davison, John M. Neale,
& Sheri L. Johnson
Notion of a Paradigm



Goal: Study abnormal behavior
scientifically
Science aims for objectivity
Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn)
» Perspective or conceptual framework from
within which a scientist operates
– We can never be totally objective

No one paradigm sufficient to completely
explain psychopathology
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Current Paradigms: Genetic
Heredity plays a role in most behavior
 Genes

» Carriers of genetic information (DNA)
» Impacted by environmental influences
– e.g., stress, relationships, culture

Relationship between genes and
environment is bidirectional
» Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)
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Important Genetic Terms

Gene expression
» Proteins influence whether the action of a specific
gene will occur

Polygenic transmission
» Multiple gene pairs vs. single gene

Heritability
» Extent to which variability in behavior is due to
genetic factors
– Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
– Group, rather than, individual indicator
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Environmental Effects

Shared environment
» Events and experiences that family
members have in common

Nonshared environment
» Events and experiences that are unique to
each family member
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Behavior Genetics


Study of the degree to which genes and
environmental factors influence behavior
Genotype
» Genetic material inherited by an individual
» Unobservable

Phenotype
» Expressed genetic material
» Observable behavior and characteristics
» Depends on interaction of genotype and
environment
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Molecular Genetics

Identifies particular genes and their functions
» Alleles
– Different forms of the same gene
» Polymorphism
– Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a
population

Knockout studies
» Removing specific genes in animals to
observe effect on behavior
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Figure 2.1 DNA/RNA
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Gene-Environment Interaction

Gene-environment interaction
» One’s response to a specific environmental event
is influenced by genes.

Epigenetics
» Study of how the environment can alter gene
expression or function
» Cross-fostering adoptee method
– Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were
raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower
levels of stress reactivity (Francis et al., 1999)
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Figure 2.2 Gene-Environment
Interaction (Adapted from Caspi et al., 2003)
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Reciprocal Gene-Environment
Interaction

Genes predispose individuals to seek
out situations that increase the likelihood
of developing a disorder.
» Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability
for depression more likely to experience
events that can trigger depression (Silberg et
al., 1999)
» Dependent life events influenced by genes
(Kendler & Baker, 2007)
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Current Paradigms:
Neuroscience

Examines the contribution of brain structure
and function to psychopathology
» Mental disorders are linked to aberrant
processes in the brain.

Four mechanisms:
»
»
»
»
Neurons and neurotransmitters
Brain structure and function
Autonomic system
Neuroendocrine system
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Figure 2.3 The Neuron
Basic Unit of the Nervous System
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Neurons and Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter
» Chemicals that allow neurons to
send a signal across the synapse
(gap) to another neuron.

Receptor sites on postsynaptic
neuron absorb neurotransmitter
» Excitatory
» Inhibitory

Reuptake
» Reabsorption of leftover
neurotransmitter by presynaptic
neuron
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Neurotransmitters and
Psychopathology

Serotonin and dopamine
» Depression, mania, and schizophrenia

Norepinephrine
» Anxiety and other stress related disorders

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
» Anxiety

Possible mechanisms
» Excessive or inadequate levels
» Insufficient reuptake
» Excessive number or sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors
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Figure 2.5 The Process by which a
Second Messenger is Released
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Figure 2.6 Brain Structure and
Function

Sulci define regions
or lobes:
»
»
»
»
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
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Figure 2.7 Brain Slice through
Medial Plan
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Figure 2.8 Subcortical Structures
of the Brain
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Figure 2.9 The HPA Axis




HPA axis involved in
stress
Hypothalamus triggers
release of corticotropinreleasing hormone
(CRF)
Pituitary gland releases
adrenocorticotropic
hormone
Adrenal cortex triggers
release of cortisol, the
stress hormone
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Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System
» Excitatory
» Heartbeat acceleration, pupil dilation,
gastrointestinal inhibition, electrodermal activity
increases

Parasympathetic Nervous System
» Quiescent
» Heartbeat deceleration, pupil constriction,
gastrointestinal activation

Involved in anxiety disorders, especially
Panic and PTSD
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Figure 2.10 Autonomic Nervous
System
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Neuroscience and Treatment

Psychoactive drugs alter
neurotransmitter activity
» Antidepressants
» Antipsychotics
» Benzodiazepenes

A neuroscience view does not preclude
psychological interventions
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Evaluating the Neuroscience
Paradigm

Reductionism
» View that behavior can best be understand
by reducing it to its basic biological
components
– Ignores more complex views of behavior
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Current Paradigms:
Psychodynamic

Fails to contribute to our empirical
understanding of the causes of
psychopathology
» Greatest contribution are in treatment
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Role of the Unconscious

Contemporary theorists have attempted to
study the unconscious scientifically
» Pathogenic beliefs
– Beliefs that occur outside of conscious awareness
– Trigger maladaptive thoughts and emotions

Implicit memory
» Cognitive neuroscience paradigm
– The unconscious may reflect efficient information
processing rather than a repository for troubling
material
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Importance of Interpersonal
Relationships

Object relations theory
» Longstanding patterns of relating to others

Attachment theory
» Type and style of infant’s attachment to
caregivers can influence later psychological
functioning.

Relational self
» Individuals will describe themselves differently
depending upon which close relationships are
told to think about (Chen et al., 2006)
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Brief Psychodynamic Therapy







Time-limited
Active therapist involvement
Concrete goals
Development of coping skills
Current life experiences
Transference downplayed
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
»
»
»
»
Unresolved grief
Role transitions
Role disputes
Interpersonal or social deficits
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Evaluating Freud and
Psychoanalysis
No formal research
 Inadequate non-representative samples
 Continuing impact:

» Personality shaped by early childhood
» Behavior influenced by unconscious
» Causes of behavior not always apparent or
obvious
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Current Paradigms: Cognitive
Behavioral


Roots in learning principles and cognitive science
Behavior is reinforced by consequences
»
»
»
»


Attention
Escape or avoidance
Sensory stimulation
Access to desirable objects or events
To alter behavior, modify consequences (e.g., time
out)
Systematic desensitization
» Relaxation plus exposure
– Imaginal or in vivo
» Important treatment for anxiety disorders
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Cognitive Science


Behaviorism criticized for ignoring thoughts and
emotions
Cognition
» A mental process which includes:
– Perceiving, judging, reasoning, conceiving, & recognizing

Schema
» Organized network of previously accumulated
knowledge
» We actively interpret new information

Role of attention in psychopathology
» Anxious individuals more likely to attend to threat or
danger
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Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Initially developed for depression
 Depression caused by distorted
thoughts

» Nothing ever goes right for me!

Help patients recognize and change
maladaptive thought patterns
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Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior
Therapy

Irrational beliefs
» Internal, repetitive thoughts that reflect
assumptions about self
– In order to be happy, I must be loved!
» Musts or shoulds
– Unrealistic demands we place on self, others,
and the world

People shouldn’t make mistakes!
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Evaluating the CBT paradigm

Are distorted thoughts the cause or the
result of psychopathology?
» Causal status unclear

Is cognitive behavior therapy really
different from behavior therapy?
» Changing behavior can alter thought
patterns.
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Table 2.1 Comparison of
Psychoanalysis and CBT
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Factors Common to Paradigms

Emotion
» Components
– Expressive
– Experiential
– Physiological
» Most psychopathology includes disturbances
of one or more component
– e.g., flat affect in schizophrenia

Cultural factors influence ideal affect (Tsai,
2007)
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Factors Common to Paradigms

Sociocultural Factors
» Culture, ethnicity, gender, & social
relationships
» May increase vulnerability to psychopathology
– e.g., women more likely to experience depression
than men
» May also serve as a buffer
– e.g., social support
» Some disorders specific to certain cultures
– Hikikomori in Japanese culture
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Table 2.2 Lifetime Prevalence Rates of DSM-IVTR Disorders among Different Ethnic Groups
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Diathesis-Stress


Integrative model that incorporates multiple
causal factors (Zubin & Spring, 1977)
Diathesis
» Underlying predisposition
– May be biological or psychological
» Increases one’s risk of developing disorder

Stress
» Environmental events
– May occur at any point after conception
– Triggering event

Psychopathology unlikely to result from one
single factor
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COPYRIGHT
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the
material protected by this copyright may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without written
permission of the copyright owner.
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