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GENETIC/PYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTIVE TRAITS
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH COLD HARDINESS
OTHER FACTORS
CONIFER COLD HARDINESS
Species
FROST RESISTANCE (°C)
MaxL.B.
USDA Zone Range
Picea glauca
-40
to
-45.6
-80
Picea engelmanni
-34.4
to
-39.9
-70
Abies lasiocarpa
-23.3
to
-28.8
-80
Pinus contorta
-12.2
to
-17.7
-80
Max L.B. = max frost hardiness for (L)eaf or (B)ud
(Bannister and Neuner 2001)
CONIFER COLD HARDINESS
CONIFER SEEDS
Temperature resulting in 50% survival (LT50)
Species
Germination subject to freezing: 3h @ -196°C
HARDINESS (°C) Species
LT50
HARDINESS (°C)
germination
Picea glauca x
engelmannii
-20
Picea glauca x
engelmannii
84-96%
Pinus contorta
-30
Pinus contorta
53-82%
(Hawkins et al. 2003)
CONIFER COLD HARDINESS
NEEDLES
Species
WHOLE ROOT SYSTEM
HARDINESS (°C)
Max
Min
Species
Picea glauca
-65
-5
Picea glauca
Abies lasiocarpa
-40
-10
Abies lasiocarpa
Pinus contorta
-35
-9
Pinus contorta
(Bigras et al. 2001)
HARDINESS (°C)
Avg.
-23
-17.8
-16
ANTHOCYANIN ACCUMULATION
Anthocyanin ~ natural sunscreen against high visible
irradiance and UV-B radiation
Characteristic ‘purpling’
Accumulation in needle surface epidermal cells
Onset: shortened photoperiod and low temperature
(Oquist et al. 2001)
CRYOPROTECTION
Enhance cold tolerance by preserving and stabilizing cell structures
Increases water deficit resistance and reduces amount of free water
CARBOHYDRATES
AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
LIPIDS
(Zwiazek et al. 2001)
CRYOPROTECTION
Species
CRYOPROTECTANTS
NON-STRUCTURAL
AMINO ACIDS
CARBOHYDRATES
AND PROTEINS
raffinosen(+), others (0)
Picea glauca
proline(~) also increased levels
in summer,
Picea glauca x engelmanni
LIPIDS
arginine(+)
raffinoses(-)
Abies lasiocarpa
Pinus contorta
sucrose (+), raffinose (+),
stachyose (+)
(+) = strong, (~) = weak, (0) = no , and (-) negative correlation with cold hardiness
subscripts: n = needles, s = seeds
(Zwiazek et al. 2001, Hawkins et al. 2003 )
phospholipids (+)
WINTER CAVITATION
Cavitation = nucleation of xylem water
Lodgepole - 20-30% loss of conductivity (representing
cavitation) in shoot xylem over winter months
.
(Sperry and Robson 2001)
SUPERCOOLING
Supercooling = winter survival mechanism in
many tree species especially hardwoods
Supercooling:
Prevents dessication
Inhibits water loss to extracelluar spaces
Lodgepole and Poderosa pine did not exhibit
freezing of supercooled water beyond -40C
Wheras spruce and fir did
(Sutinen et al. 2001)
TEMPORAL ASSOCIATIONS OF COLD HARDINESS
Hardening and Dehardening
CONIFER COLD HARDINESS
Hardening onset:
Species
Picea glauca
Pinus contorta
HARDINESS (°C)
SD
LT
0
+
+
0
SD = short days LT = low temperatures
(Bigras et al. 2001)
+
+
0
+
HARDENING AND DEHARDENING
Lodgepole vs. Spruce
Later growth cessation
Later hardeneing
Tendancy to deharden in winter
earlier dehardening
Earlier growth
(Nilsson 2001)
OTHER GENETIC/PYSIOLOGICAL TRAITS
HEAT RESISTANCE
DROUGHT RESISTANCE
Salt resistance
Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
NON-COLD HARDINESS/ OTHER TRAITS
HEAT RISISTANCE
Lodgepole - lower mortality rates than those of aspen (Populus
tremuloides Michx.), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex
Engelm.), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
Ability to withstand surface fires over spruce
(Dickinson and Johnson 2004)
NON-COLD HARDINESS/ OTHER TRAITS
DROUGHT RESISTANCE
SALT RESISTANCE
DRY BIOMASS PRODUCTION:
lodgepole pine
jack pine
white spruce
(Khasa et al. 2002)
OVERALL SURVIVAL:
jack pine
lodgepole pine
white spruce
NON-COLD HARDINESS/ OTHER TRAITS
DROUGHT RESISTANCE
WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE)
Lodgelpole WUE increases with availability of water
WUE and drought – tradeoff b/t survivability and competition
(Guy and Holowachuck 2001)
REFERENCES
Aitken, S. 2003. Adapting Forest Gene Resource Management to Climate Change. Forest Genetics Council of
B.C., Canada.
Bannister, P. and Neuner, G. 2001. Frost Resistance and the Distribution of Conifers. In Conifer cold
hardiness. Edited by F.J. Bigras and S.J. Columbo. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands. pp. 3-21.
Dickinson, M.B., and Johnson, E.A. 2004. Temperature-dependent rate models of vascular cambium cell
mortality. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 34: 546–559.
Fries, A., Lindgren, D., Ying, C.C., Ruotsalainen, S., Lindgren, K., Elfving, B., and Karlmats, U. 2000. The effect
of temperature on site index in western Canada and Scandinavia estimated from IUFRO Pinus contorta
provenance experiments. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 30: 921–929.
Guy, R.D., and Holowachuk, D.L. 2001. Population differences in stable carbon isotope ratio of Pinus contorta
Dougl. ex Loud.: relationship to environment, climate of origin, and growth potential. Canadian Journal of
Botany. 79: 274–283.
Hawkins, B.J., Guest, H.J., and Kolotelo, D. 2003. Freezing tolerance of conifer seeds and germinants. Tree
Physiology. 23: 1237–1246.
Khasa, P.D., Hambling, B., Kernaghan, G., Fung, M., and Ngimbi, E. 2002. Genetic variability in salt tolerance
of selected boreal woody seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 165: 257–269.
Nilsson, J.E. 2001. Seasonal Changes in Phenological Traits and C-populations from Plus-trees of Pinus
sylvestris and Pinus contorta of Various Geographical Origins. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research.
16: 7-20.
Oquist, G., Gardestrom, P., and Huner, N.P.A. 2001. Metabolic Changes During Cold Acclimation and
Subsequent Freezing and Thawing. In Conifer cold hardiness. Edited by F.J. Bigras and S.J. Columbo.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 3-21.
Rehfeldt, G.E., Ying, C.C., Spittlehouse, D.L, and Hamilton, D.A. 1999. Genetic Response to Climate in Pinus
contorta: Niche Breadth, Climate Change, and Reforestation. Ecological Monographs. 69(3): 375-407.
Sperry, J.S., and Robson, D.J. 2001. Xylem Cavitation and Freezing in Conifers. In Conifer cold hardiness.
Edited by F.J. Bigras and S.J. Columbo. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp.
121-136.
Zwiazek, J.J., Renault, S., Croser, C., Hansen, J., and Bech, E. 2001. Biochemical and Biophysical Changes in
Relation to Cold Hardiness. In Conifer cold hardiness. Edited by F.J. Bigras and S.J. Columbo. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 165-186.