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Vitamins and Minerals
Pages 260 - 265
• Why add them?
– Provide balance
– Bring up to
requirements
– Add value
– Shelf life
• How are they added?
– Pre weighed for a
particular inclusion
level
– Specialized
companies that
formulate and mix premixes
Minerals
• Minerals are inorganic compounds (Ash)
• Concentration in plant based feedstuffs
– Mineral content of the soil (varies by region)
– Mineral content of the water
– Mineral content of the fertilizer used
• Concentration in an animal's body varies and reflects
– Species
– Age
– Diet
Selenium
United States Geochemical Survey (USGS)
Mineral Resources
Animal Composition
Calcium = 1.29%
Phosphorus = 1.46%
Ca:P = 0.88
Calcium = 2.01%
Phosphorus = 1.52%
Ca:P = 1.19
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
• Classifications: macrominerals (major) or microminerals (trace).
– Macrominerals
• Greater than 100 ppm in an animal's body
• Usually fed in grams/day or %
• Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg and sometimes K and S
– Microminerals
• Less than 100 ppm in an animal’s body
• Usually fed in the ug/d or mg/d range (ppm, mg/kg, ug/g)
• Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Se, Zn and Co
• Adequate concentrations and balance between minerals are very
important.
– Excessive amounts of one mineral may interfere with utilization of
one or more other minerals.
Minerals: More is not better!
• Minerals interact with one
another
• Even if no interaction occurs,
minerals may be outright toxic
• Maximal levels are of some
concern
in many situations
• Federal and State laws often
require maximum specifications
listed on labels
Figure 8.1 Mineral interactions.
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
• Specialized companies formulate
• Most diets are formulated by computer
programs designed to minimize cost
– This can lead to problems with pre-mixes.
– Often nutritionists responsible for formulating
mineral supplements will specify which
mineral sources are to be used and not allow
the software to select minerals based on
price.
– Pre-mixes need to be formulated based on
need in the diet not cost.
Mineral Considerations
• Chemical form
• Affects biological availability
• Carbonates, chlorides, oxides, sulfates, chelates,
etc.
• Physical form
• Especially fineness
• Influences how well it mixes with other ingredients
• Absence of harmful impurities
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
Figure 8.2 Examples of common mineral supplements.
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
Salt (NaCl)
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•
•
•
Common salt, practically pure sodium chloride
Most common mineral supplement
Often used in diets to regulate feed intake
Palatable – animals typically consume enough
to meet requirements
– Not a problem, given adequate supplies of water
• Used as a carrier for other elements or
materials a feeder wants animals to consume
– Medications (anti-parasitic, anti-bloating, etc…)
MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS
Salt (NaCl)
• Necessary for water balance in the body; therefore,
specifically required for production.
– Requirements increase as fluid losses increase, as when
sweating or when milk production increases.
• Ruminants & horses: 0.5 to 1% salt
• Poultry & pigs: 0.25 to 0.5% salt
• When salt is mixed in feed, it should be fairly
fine in texture, non-caking, and free flowing.
– Salt is often fed ad libitum to ruminants & horses, as their
requirements are higher than swine or poultry.
• Feeding methods and strategies allow this practice.
Salt (NaCl)
•
Salt may be fed in loose form or as compressed blocks.
– Blocks tend to restrict intake compared with loose salt
– Convenient to use
– More weather resistant than loose salt
– Advances in technology
Salt (NaCl)
• Toxicity concerns
– Swine & poultry are much more susceptible
– Water restriction increases risk
– High salinity water or soil may reduce need to
supplementation
• Iodized salt
– supply a minimum of 0.007% iodine.
• Trace-mineralized salt is commercially
available
– Co, Cu, Fe, I, Mn, & Zn.
Calcium and Phosphorus
• Most animal diets require supplementation
– Skeletal growth, lactation, egg production.
• Many feedstuffs are borderline to deficient
in Ca & P or they are not in proper balance
(1:1 to 2:1)
– Phosphorus can be an issue for high forage
fed herbivores.
– Calcium can be an issue for high cereal grain
fed herbivores.
Calcium and Phosphorus
• Most non-plant Ca sources are well utilized by most
animal species
– Although net digestibility may be low, there is little difference
between Ca sources
• Not the case for P
• The usual recommendation is to consider only half of
plant P available for non-ruminant species (phytates)
– Ruminants utilize phytin P due to production of phytase, which
releases P from the phytin complex.
– Methods to increase biological digestibility of P in non-ruminants
has resulted in commercial availability of phytase products.
Calcium and Phosphorus
• Marked differences also exist in the biological
availability of some inorganic P sources.
– Phosphoric acid and the mono-, di-, and
tricalcium phosphates are well utilized.
– Curacao Island and colloidal (soft) phosphates
are utilized less well by most animals.
• Some sources from rock phosphates must be
defluorinated.
– Otherwise, long-term consumption may produce
chronic fluorine toxicity.
Calcium and Phosphorus
• Dicalcium phosphate is one of the more common supplements for
both Ca and P.
– Processed bones (steamed bone meal, bone ash, etc.)
– Chemically treated bones
– Adding Ca to phosphoric acid: Di-Ca-P precipitates
• Additional Ca & P sources include monocalcium and tricalcium
phosphates.
• Salts such as calcium oxide
• Calcium sulfate (gypsum) is sometimes added
to ruminant rations containing non-protein N to provide needed S.
• Calcium carbonate (limestone) – useful when you don’t want more
phosphorus in the diet.
• Calcium acetate binds P
• Calcium citrate can acidify urine
• Anionic salts (magnesium sulfate, calcium chloride) make ration
more acidic increasing Ca absorption (implication for milk fever)
Magnesium
– Function
• Major cation cofactor for enzymatic reactions
including transfer of P from ATP – ADP – AMP.
– Mg oxide is most common supplemental form.
• 52 – 56% Mg
– Magnesium carbonate or sulfate are also
used
• Sulfate has a laxative effect, more expensive
– Dolomite limestone contains about 12% Mg
Potassium
• Potassium
– Function
• acid-base balance and electrical and chemical gradients (interacts with
Cl and Na)
– Deficiency
• Typically not an issue in animal diets and often not needed in
supplemental form (except lactating dairy cattle or other ruminants fed
high concentrate diets)
– Not palatable at high levels so voluntary intake will decrease
– Forms: chloride, bicarbonate, carbonate, acetate, citrate, sulfate,
phosphate, iodide, and gluconate
– Higher requirement for ruminants on high-concentrate diets,
lactating, water losses, heat stress
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Poultry – 1,500 – 5,000 mg/kg
Swine – 1,500 – 3,000 mg/kg
Feedlot cattle – 5 – 7,000 mg/kg
Dairy cattle - 10,000 mg/kg
Sulfur
• Sulfur
– Widely distributed in nature (gypsum, epsom salts)
– Many forms: calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate,
sulfur containing AA’s
– Function: sulfur containing compounds (Methionine,
cysteine, taurine, thiamin, condroitin, glutathione)
– Deficiency not common if protein is adequate
– Toxicity
• Principal species of concern: Ruminants
(Polioencephalomalacia)
• Reacts and forms complexes with other minerals – reducing
availability
Microminerals (Trace Minerals)
• Microminerals most commonly added to animal diets include:
– Cobalt; Copper; Iodine; Iron; Manganese; Selenium; Zinc.
• Iron
– Component of hemoglobin and myoglobin, transports oxygen
– Considerable iron oxide is used as a coloring agent in things such as
trace-mineralized salt
– Other forms: iron carbonate and ferrous sulfate
• Copper is most commonly added as the sulfate
– Oxide, carbonate & hydroxide are used sometimes
– Component of many enzymes
– Most deficiencies are due to other mineral antagonists (molybdenum,
sulfur and iron)
• Sheep are extremely sensitive
– 10 mg/kg Cu if diet is high in molybdenum and Fe, is tolerated. If Mb and Fe are low,
that level will be toxic
Trace Minerals
• Manganese is usually required in poultry diets (high in
corn)
– Deficiencies on normal diets: cattle, swine, poultry –
resulting in bone abnormalities and poor metabolism
– Interacts with Ca, P, Fe
– Oxide and sulfate are most often used in feeds
– Considered one of the least toxic minerals
• Cobalt is required only by rumen microorganisms.
– To synthesize vitamin B12
– Most often added as the carbonate or sulfate.
Trace Minerals
• Iodine is required for synthesis of thyroid hormones
– is a very reactive mineral most often fed as iodized salt, but also fed
in various other forms (kelp, seaweed – pet diets)
– Problematic in all meat diets (pets)
• Zinc is required biochemically in zinc-finger protein domains
– frequently needed in most animal diets commonly supplied as Zinc
oxide.
• Selenium is required for at least 12 enzymes
– Can be very toxic
– Deficiency more common in conjunction with Vitamin E (White
muscle disease in ruminants; liver necrosis in other species)
Trace Minerals
• For trace minerals added to premixes, regulations
require the minimum amount to be specified.
– Selenium (Se) is the only trace mineral closely
regulated in the United States by the FDA.
• Feeding of chelated minerals (“organic minerals”)
has been promoted to prevent formation of
insoluble complexes in the GI tract & reduce
amount of a particular mineral required in the diet.
– Chelates are compounds with the mineral atom bound
to an organic complex. (amino acid, carbohydrate, etc.)
– Chelated minerals are commonly used in rations.
Mineral Marketing and Propaganda
• Little information on how much of the minerals in
feeds are truly bioavailable.
– Will not be 100%
– Difficult to study – need to use radioactive isotopes
– Significant biological recycling of minerals in the body
– Variation among species utilization
PROBLEMS WITH COMMERCIAL
MINERAL SOURCES
• Feedstuff variability
• Generalized commercial mineral supplements may
not be as accurate as they should be
– May not meet specific need/deficiency
• Livestock feeders must be careful to reasonably
ensure mineral needs of their animals are met
– Cost of mineral is small in comparison to benefits
– Pay particular attention to needs of operation
VITAMIN SOURCES
• Almost all feedstuffs contain some vitamins,
but concentrations in plant or animal tissues
varies tremendously.
– Plant vitamin variation affected by:
• Harvesting, processing, and storage conditions, as well
as by plant species and plant part.
– Animal vitamin variation affected by:
• Age, portion of the body used (liver and kidney are
generally good sources of most of the vitamins).
– Yeasts and other microorganisms are also
excellent sources, particularly of the B vitamins.
VITAMIN SOURCES
• As a rule, vitamins are not stable
– easily destroyed by heat, sunlight, oxidizing
conditions, or mold growth.
• If question of dietary adequacy arises, it is
better to err on the high side than risk a
deficiency.
• Difficult and very expensive to analyze in
diets (HPLC)
Vitamin Considerations
• Vitamins likely to be limiting in natural diets:
– A, D, E, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, niacin,
choline, and cobalamin (B12)
– Biotin may also be a problem in swine, poultry,
horses, pets.
– Thiamin + vitamin E are major concerns for
managed piscivorous species
– Vitamin K may be needed because some feed
additives may inhibit adequate
synthesis
– Niacin may aid fat metabolism &
ketosis prevention
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A
• Best feed sources of carotenes (provitamin A)
are green and yellow plants.
– Commercially, dehydrated alfalfa leaf and alfalfa
meals or sun-cured alfalfa are typcial sources.
– Concentrated sources, such as carrot oil or alfalfa
extracts, are also used.
– Dry products in which carotene has been
absorbed on a millfeed product
– Carotene products in vegetable or animal oils
– Cats cannot meet Vitamin A requirement through
carotenoids
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A
• Vitamin A, itself, is not found in plants, but only
in animal tissues.
– The liver & liver oils and kidneys from fish are good
sources (cod liver oil)
• Though still used commercially, fish liver oils have
been largely replaced by synthetically produced
vitamin A, due to cost differences.
– For feeds, vitamin A is normally sold in a dry, gelatincoated form to which antioxidants have been added.
– The common chemical form is the ester, usually as
vitamin A acetate, propionate, or palmitate.
Vitamin A
Stirs controversy
• Retinyl palmitate – ester of vitamin A
combined with the saturated fatty acid
palmitic acid from palm oil
• Marketing concerns for feed
and pre-mix manufacturers
due to conservation and
environmental concerns
– Roundtable on Sustainable
Palm Oil (RSPO)
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A
• Vitamin A preparations normally are quite stable
and can be added to most feed mixes or liquid
supplements without much loss of vitamin
activity during normal storage periods.
• Grinding a feed makes it susceptible to vitamin
loss due to heat involved, and because ground
feed is more exposed to oxygen.
– It is now a common practice to add antioxidants
to premixes to minimize vitamin destruction.
– Supplemental sources are protected by coating them
with emulsifying agents, antioxidants, gelatin & sugar.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - A
• Other factors that may reduce vitamin A
content:
– Time in storage, temperature, exposure to
ultraviolet light, and trace mineral content of
the diet.
– Moisture or hygroscopic compounds such as
choline chloride or urea.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - D
• Feedstuff sources: sun-cured forages, fish liver
oils, and synthetic vitamin D produced by
irradiating yeast, plant, or animal sterols with
ultraviolet light.
– Most commercial feeds have vitamin D added.
• Four-footed animals are able to convert vitamin D2
to D3, but poultry utilize D2 very inefficiently.
– For poultry, vitamin D is standardized in International
Chick Units (preparations containing crystalline D3).
– Use of D3 in feeds for animals other than poultry is
more efficient, resulting in lower dietary requirements.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - D
• Vitamin D3 is found naturally in animal products,
but vitamin D produced from irradiation of plant or
yeast products is in the D2 form.
– D-activated animal sterol is available dissolved in oil
or absorbed by flour or other fine powders.
– Vitamin D2 supplements & irradiated are available.
• Vitamin D is relatively stable in mixed feed
– Rapid losses can occur when mixed directly with
limestone, oxidizing compounds & and some organic
ingredients.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - E
• Vitamin E (primarily a-tocopherol) is present in
most common feedstuffs, but found in highest
concentrations in the germ or germ oil of plants.
– Moderate concentrations in green plants or hays
or in dehydrated alfalfa meal.
– Synthetically produced concentrates are available.
• Vitamin E is an antioxidant; thus, it is lost rapidly in
any situation resulting in oxidizing conditions.
– Heat, light, high trace mineral content of feed, etc.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Fat-Soluble Vitamins - K
• Vitamin K is widely distributed in green plant
material & produced by microbes in the GI tract.
• Many compounds have vitamin K activity, but
menadione, a naturally occurring compound,
is usually the normal reference standard.
– It is fat soluble, stored in relatively high
concentrations in animal tissues or in seeds such as
soybeans.
– Two common water-soluble forms, menadione
sodium bisulfite and menadione dimethylpyrimidinol
bisulfite, are often used as feed supplements.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Animal & fish by-products, green forages, yeast,
fermentation products, milk by-products, oilseed
meals, and some seed parts are usually good
sources of the water-soluble vitamins.
– Cereal grain bran layers are fair to moderate sources.
– Roots and tubers are poor to fair sources.
• Cobalamin (B12) is the only required vitamin that is
not found in plants.
– It is produced exclusively by microorganisms, so
good sources are yeast or similar products.
– Animal manures also contain B12.
VITAMIN SOURCES
Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Water-soluble vitamins produced
synthetically may be used when especially
high vitamin content is needed in some
particular situation.
– Thiamin hydrochloride; Riboflavin; Nicotinic
acid or nicotinamide.
– Pyridoxine; Choline chloride; Ascorbic &
Pantothenic acid.
Examine Your Mineral Tag