Transcript Removal of materials from the blood

Higher Human Biology
Unit 23: The Continuation of
Life
Chapter 23:
Removal of Materials from
the Blood.
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Mrs Smith Ch23 The Removal of
Materials from Blood
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Learning Intentions
To understand how
the liver, lungs and
kidneys are involved
in the removal of
materials from the
blood.
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Success Criteria
1. Describe the role of the liver
in:
I. Conservation of useful
substances
II. Detoxification of toxic
materials
III. Removal of bilirubin
IV. Production of urea
Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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Removal of materials from the body
The circulatory system is vital for the removal of
materials from the body. The main organs that help
remove unwanted materials are:
The lungs
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The liver
Mrs Smith Ch23 The Removal of
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The kidney
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1. The Lungs
 Carbon Dioxide is a waste product of respiration
 CO2 is transported to the lungs, via the blood plasma, to be
removed from the body in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO-3).
 As blood flows through the pulmonary system these bicarbonate
ions combine with hydrogen ions (H+) to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3). An enzyme then breaks the carbonic acid down into
water and CO2:
H2CO3
enzyme
H2O
+
CO2
Concentration of CO2 in blood plasma > Concentration CO2 in air
• So CO2 diffuses out of the blood into the lungs down a
concentration gradient. Breathing, which exhales air rich in
CO2, maintains this gradient.
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Diffusion in the alveoli
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Excretion of carbon dioxide
Excretion = the
elimination of waste
products of metabolism
e.g.
• Removal of CO2
(waste product of
respiration) at the
lungs.
• Release of bile
pigment in bile.
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2. Role of Liver
The liver removes materials from the blood by:
• Conservation of useful substances.
– e.g. glucose, plasma proteins
• Detoxification of toxic materials which are
potentially toxic.
• Removal of bilirubin and its excretion as bile.
• Production of urea.
Liver maintains a stable internal
environment, and provides cells
with optimum conditions
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Liver: Conservation of useful
substances
Glucose
Level regulated
• excess stored as
glycogen which can be
converted to glucose as
needed.
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3 types of
Plasma proteins
Maintains a stable pool
• some undergo
deamination in the liver
• meanwhile new
molecules are
synthesised
Mrs Smith Ch23 The Removal of
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Components of blood
plasma Regulated
• Stable internal
environment maintained
• living cells have
optimum conditions for
growth & development
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Detoxification of toxic materials
• Certain substances which gain access to
or are produced by the body as a result of
metabolic reactions are potentially toxuc.
• They would do the body harm if left
unaltered.
• These substances are detoxified by liver
cells.
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Detoxification occurs in one of 4 ways
• Substances are detoxified by liver cells in
one of 4 ways…..
A.
B.
C.
D.
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Chemical Alteration
Chemical Breakdown
Chemical attachment (conjugation).
Uptake by macrophages
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A. Chemical alteration
• Biologically active molecules (e.g. Drugs)
are rendered inactive by being chemically
altered in the liver.
• The products are then excreted in bile or
released into the bloodstream and
removed by the kidneys.
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B. Chemical breakdown
Hydrogen peroxide, a highly toxic by-product
of metabolism is broken down by the enzyme
catalase into harmless substances.
Liver cells are rich in catalase.
2H2O2
TOXIC
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catalase
2H2O + O2
Harmless
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B. Chemical breakdown
• Alcohol (ethanol) gets
converted in the liver, by a series
of enzyme –controlled steps to
acetyl CoA, which acts as a
respiratory substrate for aerobic
respiration.
• Too much alcohol damages
cells. Regular consumption of
alcohol to excess can cause
permanent liver damage leading
to a fatal liver condition called
cirrhosis.
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C. Chemical attachement
• Some unwanted substances (e.g. Certain
types of food preservative) become
attached to liver cells to the amino acid
glycerine.
• This acts as a molecular label which is
recognised as waste by the kidneys and
excreted.
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D. Uptake by macrophages
• Foreign particles are removed by
macrophages (phagocytic cells) which
line the liver’s blood vessels.
• If for example an animal is injected
intravenously with a suspension of carbon
particles, samples of liver obtained only
minutes later show numerous carbonladen macrophage cells.
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Liver: Detoxification of Materials:
SUMMARY
Toxic substances, that have either been eaten or produced in
metabolic reactions, must be destroyed to prevent them
harming the body. Liver cells detoxify such substances.
Detoxification by liver cells
Chemical alteration
Biologically active
molecules altered in
the liver.
Products excreted in
bile or released into
blood and removed
by kidneys
Chemical attachment
(conjugation)
Unwanted substance become
attached by liver cells to the
amino acid glycine.
This acts as a chemical
label which is recognised
as a waste by the kidneys
and excreted
Uptake by
macrophages
Macrophages
line the liver’s
blood vessels
removing
foreign
particles
Chemical
breakdown
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(see next page)
Learning Intentions
To understand
how the liver,
lungs and kidneys
are involved in the
removal of
materials from the
blood.
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Success Criteria
1. 3. Describe the role of the
liver in:
I. Conservation of useful
substances
II. Detoxification of toxic
materials
III. Removal of bilirubin
IV. Production of urea
Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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3. Removal of bilirubin
 When red blood cells reach the
end of their 120 day life span, they
are destroyed by macrophage cells
in the liver, bone marrow and
spleen,
 Haemoglobin is broken down by
theses cells into a yellow pigment
called bilirubin. Biliruben is
releases into the blood giving
blood plasma its yellowish colour.
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Excretion of bilirubin
 Bilirubin molecules, removed from the blood
plasma by the liver, are added to bile with the aid
of enzymes and become bile pigment (Conjugated
bilirubin). This has no useful role in digestion so is
released in bile.
 In the gut, bilirubin is converted by bacteria to
the brown pigment that gives faeces its brown
colour.
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4. Jaundice
Bilirubin accumulates in the bloodstream when:
• Liver cells can’t absorb
bilirubin (due to illness e.g.
hepatitis).
• The bile duct becomes
blocked preventing the
release of bile to small
intestine.
• Red blood cell destruction
is excessively high.
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4. Jaundice
Jaundice is caused by excessively high concentrations
of bilirubin.
Baby’s can be screened for
Bilirubin using a light meter that
is placed on the baby’s head.
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Learning Intentions
To understand
how the liver,
lungs and kidneys
are involved in the
removal of
materials from the
blood.
02/04/2016
Success Criteria
2. Determining the
quantity of urea in urine
samples
Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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Production of Urea: Deamination
• Unlike carbohydrate and
lipid, protein is not stored in
the body. Excess amino
acids are absorbed from the
gut then undergo
deamination in liver cells.
• De-amination needs oxygen
• It produces an organic acid
• It produces ammonia which
goes to the ornithine cycle.
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5. Production of urea
During this process, the amino acid is broken down to form
ammonia and an organic acid.
Organic acid
(Kreb cycle
intermediate or pyruvic
acid)
Used for
energy
release in
respiation
Breakdown of amino acids
Ammonia
Passes into blood and leaves the
liver by the hepatic vein. It is
removed from the blood at the
kidneys.
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+
CO2
Very toxic
Urea
Less toxic
+
H2O
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Fate of deaminated amino acids
• Depending on which amino acid has been
deaminated the organic acid may be pyruvic
acid or one of Krebs Cycle intermediates.
• It can then enter the respiratory pathway or be
used for energy release.
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Ornithine cycle
• Since ammonia is formed during
deamination of an amino acid is
highly toxic, it is immediately
passed to the ornithine cycle.
• This cycle is controlled by
enzymes in the liver cells.
• Here Ornithine is constantly
regenerated.
• During this cycle , ammonia
reacts with carbon dioxide to
form less toxic urea and water.
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Urea production
• During the conversion of ammonia into urea, two
molecules of ammonia and one molecule of carbon
dioxide combine to form one molecule of urea and one of
water. Assisting this process there is a cyclical
conversion of ornithine into citrulline, arginine, and then
back to ornithine again.
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Where does the urea go?
• Urea is then passed into the bloodstream
and then leaves the liver by the hepatic
vein.
• It is removed from blood by the kidneys.
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Determining the quantity of urea in
‘urine’ samples
The combination of urea with water is catalysed by the
enzyme urease:
Urea
+
H2O
urease
ammonium carbonate
(an alkali)
The quantity of urea in the original solution is directly related
to the quantity of alkali produced. This can be determined
by the volume of acid needed to neutralise the alkali.
Methyl orange, an indicator, is used to show the change
from alkali (orange) to acid (red).
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Using solutions of known concentration to
plot a calibration graph
Using urea solutions of known concentration a calibration graph can
be drawn.
• Four solutions of know urea concentration are made up.
• Following enzyme activity at 37oC, each solution is
titrated against hydrochloric acid.
• The volume of hydrochloric acid needed to neutralise the
alkali in each solution is indicated by methyl orange
changing colour.
• This is repeated for each conc many times and results
are pooled and averaged.
• The results are then plotted to make a calibration graph.
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Urea Concentration Calibration Curve
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Using a calibration graph to calculate the
urea content of unknown samples
The following experiment is carried out on a sample of urine
(urea concentration unknown) and compared to the calibration
curve.
Many repeats done to increase reliability of results.
to increase
surface area
to aid mixing of
enzyme & substrate
+ 2 crushed
urease tablets
o
In water bath at 37 C
for 90 mins
Flasks
shaken at
15min
intervals
Optimum
temperature for
enzyme activity
50 cm3 urea solution
(urea + water)
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After 90 mins,
20 drops of
methyl orange
added + 0.1M
HCl until
indictor turns
red
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Task: Torrance-TYK pg178 Qu 1-3
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Mrs Smith Ch20: Transport
Mechanisms - The Cardiac Cycle
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Learning Intentions
To understand
how the liver,
lungs and kidneys
are involved in the
removal of
materials from the
blood.
02/04/2016
Success Criteria
4. Label a diagram of a
kidney nephron
5. Explain the mechanism
of kidney function to
include
I. Ultrafiltration
Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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6. Structure of the Kidney
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6.The Kidneys: Structure
Each kidney
has about a
million tiny
filtering units
called
nephrons.
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Each nephron is composed of several part
glomerulus
Bowman's
capsule
nephron
blood
capillaries
collecting
duct
The capillaries in the glomerulus are narrower than the
capillary that supplied it with blood. What effect will this have
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on the blood pressure in the glomerulus?
Nephrons
• Each nephron is composed of several parts.
• A glomerulus is enclosed in a cup-shaped Bowman’s
capsule which leads into a long kidney tubule
surrounded by a dense network of blood capillaries.
• Two regions of the tubule possess several twists and
turns and are therefore described as convoluted. The
proximal convoluted tubule is the twisted region at the
greater distance from the Bowman’s capsule.
• The long, U-shaped stretch of tubule between the
convoluted regions is called the loop of Henle.
• Each kidney tubule leads to a communal collecting duct.
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The Kidney Nephron
Knot of tiny blood
vessels
The blood enters the
nephron via the renal
artery and leaves via the
renal vein. At the
glomerulus the blood is
filtered and the filtrate
gathers in the bowman’s
capsule. The filtrate then
passes along the tubule to
the communal collecting
duct.
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Has many
twists & turns
Bowman’s
capsule
Loop of Henle
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The Kidneys: Function:
Production of Urine
• The kidneys remove waste material from the
blood and excrete them in urine.
• The production of urine involves the
– ultrafiltration of blood
– reabsorption of useful materials from the filtrate.
• Since urine contains urea, a nitrogenous
waste, the kidneys are described as organs
of nitrogenous excretion.
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7. Ultrafiltration
• Ultrafiltration happens at the
Bowman’s capsule.
• Blood containing waste products
enters the kidney by the renal artery
which divides into about a million
branches each supplying a
glomerulus.
• Each glomerulus consists of a
coiled knot of blood capillaries.
This arrangement enables a large
surface area of blood vessel to be
in contact with the inner lining of
the Bowman’s capsule.
• It is at this interface
ultrafiltration takes place
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Ultrafiltration- Basement
membrane filter.
The layer of cells which makes up the capillary wall of a
glomerulus differs from a normal capillary because.....
• It has pores which are large enough to let ALL the
substances within plasma pass through.
• The porous layer is attached to a highly permeable thin
layer of non-living material called the basement
membrane.
• The basement membrane has no pores but acts as a filter
that...
– Allows small molecules such as glucose, water, salts & urea
to pass through.
– Prevents large molecules of plasma protein from leaving the
blood stream.
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Protein molecules pass
through the fenestrated
endothelial layer of the
capillaries, but are prevented
from passing
into the cavity of Bowman’s
capsule by the basement
membrane
glucose
water
ions
protein
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urea
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Blood Pressure
• Plasma proteins which remain in the blood plasma
tend to draw water back from the filtrate in the
capsule by osmosis.
• In addition filtrate already present in the capsule
tends to resist the delivery of further filtrate into the
capsule.
• Successful ultrafiltration of blood depends on
the blood in the glomeruli being at high enough
pressure to overcome both of these factors and
force filtrate out of the plasma.
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Ultrafiltration and Blood Pressure.
• High blood pressure in the glomerulus is needed
to force the filtrate out of the blood plasma. This is
maintained because:
– The blood vessels leading to the glomerulus come
from the renal artery, which is a branch from the
aorta so carries blood at high pressure
– The blood vessels entering the glomerulus are wider
than the blood vessels leaving it, causing a bottleneck and the blood to be squeezed
Did you know? An adult has ~ 4.5
l of blood,
but the kidneys filter ~ 1500 l of blood/day!
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Ultrafiltration – Rate of
production of filtrate and urine.
• A human adult contains about 4.5 litres of blood.
• During its continuous circulation round the body,
blood repeatedly enters the kidneys and
undergoes filtration.
• Each day a human adult’s kidneys filter a total
volume of around 1500 litres of blood and
produce about 180 litres of glomerular filtrate.
• However the production of urine is only about 12 litres.
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Learning Intentions
Success Criteria
To understand
how the liver,
lungs and kidneys
are involved in the
removal of
materials from the
blood.
5. Explain the mechanism
of kidney function to
include
II. Re-absorption
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Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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8. Reabsorption
About 180 l of glomerular filtrate is produced every day but
only 1-2 l of urine is produced, because ~ 99% of the water in
the filtrate is reabsorbed into the bloodstream.
Apart from the plasma proteins
and water, the chemicals in blood
plasma and glomerular filtrate are
very similar.
Reabsorption occurs at various
points along the tubule that come
into contact with the blood
capillaries.
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A. Reabsorption of Salts:
Proximal convoluted tubule
Glucose & amino acids absorbed
by epithelial cells lining the tubule.
90% Sodium ions (Na+) from
glomerular filtrate actively
pumped across epithelial
cells, as they are combined
with Chloride (Cl-) ions in the
form of salt, they to pass into
the blood
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Diffusion
Active
transport
Facilitated
diffusion
Sodium ions in the
lumen of
the proximal
convoluted tubule
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A. Reabsorption of Water:
Proximal convoluted tubule
Water
The active transport of glucose, sodium
ions (and other solutes such as amino
acids) into the blood stream reduces the
blood plasma's concentration relative to
that of the glomerular filtrate.
Water therefore passes into blood by
osmosis.
This movement of water is a form of
passive transport and does not require
energy. About 85% of water is
reabsorbed from the proximal
convoluted tubule.
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The transport of glucose, amino acids and ions into
the epithelial cells creates a gradient of water
potential across the lining of the tubule; water is
Mrs Smith Ch23 from
The Removal
of
therefore withdrawn
the tubule
by osmosis,
Materials
from Blood
such
that approximately
85%
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Reabsorption of Glucose :
Proximal convoluted tubule
Epithelial cells are
structurally suited to their
function:
Many microvilli for large
surface area
Many mitochondria to
provide energy for active
transport (of glucose)
Carrier molecules
carry glucose across
cell membranes
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Image source: people.eku.edu
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interstitia
l fluid
lume
n
epithelial
cells
microvilli
intercellula
r
spaces
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many
mitochondri
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Diabetes
Untreated sufferers of diabetes mellitus have so much
glucose in their blood plasma that some of the glucose in
the glomerular filtrate is not reabsorbed by the epithelial
cells of the proximal convoluted tubules. This is excreted
in urine.
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B. Reabsorption: Loop of Henle
• Each U-shaped loop of Henle lies in
the medulla
• Consists of a descending limb and
an ascending limb
• At the descending limb
– Water is reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream by Osmosis
– Salts are not reabsorbed here
• At the ascending limb
– water is not reabsorbed as the thick
wall of the tubule is impermeable to
water
– Salts are pumped out of the filtrate
into the tissue fluid
This creates a low water
concentration by high solute
concentration
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C. Reabsorption: Distal convoluted tubule
Sodium chloride (salt)
is reabsorbed from the
distal convoluted tubule
by being actively
pumped into the
bloodstream, but in
smaller quantities.
Water also passes from
the distal convoluted
tubule into the
bloodstream
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D. Reabsorption: Collecting Duct
Because the medullary tissue
fluid has a low water
concentration (due to the action
at the ascending limb of the loop
of Henle) the kidney tissues can
reabsorb lots of water by
osmosis from the collecting
ducts.
The volume of water needed to
return the bloods water
concentration to normal is
reabsorbed from the filtrate. The
rest is passed out in the urine.
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D. Reabsorption from Collecting Duct
is controlled by the hormone ADH
Image source: www.uic.edu
No ADH Present - Collecting Duct
is NOT permeable to water and
large volume of urine is produced
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ADH Present - Collecting Duct is
permeable to water and a small
volume of urine is produced
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Reabsorption – Summary
• Proximal convoluted tubule
– Glucose
– Salt (Sodium+Chloride ions)
– Water
Active Transport
Active Transport
Osmosis
• Descending Loop of Henle
– Water
Osmosis
• Ascending Loop of Henle
– Salts (Sodium+Chloride ions)
Active Transport
• Distal Convoluted Tubule
– Salts (Sodium+Chloride ions)
– Water
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Active Transport
Osmosis
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Learning Intentions
To understand
how the liver,
lungs and kidneys
are involved in the
removal of
materials from the
blood.
02/04/2016
Success Criteria
6. Analyse data on
glomerular filtrate,
tubule fluid and urine
composition and rates
of production
Mrs Smith Ch22 The delivery of
nutrients to cells
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Role of
ADH
Water content of
blood too low
Salt eaten or
much sweating
Brain releases
much ADH
Too much
water drunk
Water content of
blood normal
High volume of
water passes
into blood
High volume of
water reabsorbed
by kidney
Small volume of
concentrated urine
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passed to the bladder
Water content of
blood too high
Brain releases
little ADH
Low volume of
water passes
into blood
High volume of dilute
urine passed to the
bladder
Low volume of
water reabsorbed
by kidney
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ADH and Osmoregulation
The volume of water reabsorbed varies greatly. This is
regulated by the concentration of anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH) present in the bloodstream.
ADH
increases the
permeability
to water of the
distal
convoluted
tubules &
collecting
ducts.
Regulation of Blood Water Concentration
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Image source: www.bbc.co.uk
ADH and Osmoregulation
High Water Concentration
• When the water concentration of the blood
is high, very little ADH is released into the
blood stream from the pituitary gland.
• The distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts remain practically
impermeable to water and almost none is
reabsorbed from these regions of tubule.
• A large volume of dilute urine is therefore.
produced
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ADH and Osmoregulation
Low Water Concentration
• When the water concentration of the blood is
low, the situation is reversed and a small volume
of concentrated urine is produced.
• This mechanism allows the kidneys to plat an
osmoregulatory role in the maintenance of the
body’s internal steady state. (more in chapter
24)
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Task: Torrance-TYK pg183 Qu 1-3
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Mrs Smith Ch20: Transport
Mechanisms - The Cardiac Cycle
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Task: Torrance AYK
pg184/185 Qu’s 1-6
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Mrs Smith Ch19 The need for
transport
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Essay Questions:
SQA 2005
2005
Describe the function of
the liver under the
following headings
i.Production of urea. (2)
ii.Metabolism of
carbohydrates. (5)
iii.Breakdown of red blood
cells.
(3)
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transport
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Guide to ‘H’ Grade Essays
Essay 35 pg83
Discuss the role of the
liver under the following
headings
i.Metabolism of protein.(5)
ii.Detoxification.
(5)
iii.Conservation of useful
substances
(5)
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transport
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Guide to ‘H’ Grade Essays
Essay 35 pg83
Give an account of the role
of the kidneys with
reference to the following:
i.Ultrafiltration.
ii.Reabsorption.
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(8)
(7)
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transport
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TASK: Match
the correct
word with its
meaning on
each page!
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Word
Meaning
Kidney
Carries unpurified blood to the kidney
Renal artery Carries purified blood away from the
kidney
Renal vein
Chemical messenger
Ureter
Carries urine from the kidney to the
bladder
Bladder
Gland that releases ADH
Urethra
Stores urine
ADH
Carries urine out of body
Hormone
Organ that filters the blood
Pituitary gland Hormone that regulates water balance
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Word
Meaning
Network of very thin blood vessels
Glomerulus
U-shaped kidney tubule that
reabsorbs water into the
Bowman’s capsule bloodstream
Tiny knot of blood capillaries in
Blood capillaries the Bowman’s capsule where
filtration of the blood occurs
Nephron
Cup-shaped structure that collects
glomerular filtrate from the
blood
Loop of Henle
Tiny filtering unit in the kidney
02/04/2016
Mrs Smith Ch23 The Removal of
Materials from Blood
74
Word
Meaning
Waste liquid excreted by the body
Tube that carries urine away from
Collecting duct
several kidney tubules
Nitrogen containing waste product
Dialysis
made in the liver from surplus
Glomerular filtrate amino acids
Fluid produced from filtration of
Urine
the blood in a glomerulus
Artificial filtration of blood
Urea
through a selectively permeable
membrane to remove waste
products
02/04/2016
Mrs Smith Ch23 The Removal of
Materials from Blood
75