Transcript Biology Final Exam Review

Biology Final Exam Review
Microscopes
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Total Magnification = eyepiece X
objective lens
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Eyepiece is always 10x
If your objective lens is 40x, then total
magnification = 10x X 40x, which is
400x.
pH
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The measure of how acidic or basic a
substance is.
pH < 7 is acidic (fruit juice, soda,
stomach acid).
pH = 7 is neutral (water).
pH > 7 is basic (household cleaners).
Scientific Method
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Parts of an Experiment
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Independent Variable – whatever you are testing
for; goes on X-axis
Dependent Variable – whatever you are
observing, counting, or measuring at the end;
goes on y-axis
Control – whatever is normal, whatever one you
leave alone
Constants – the things that are the same in all
groups.
Trials – the number of times you run an
experiment.
Why Are Cells So Small?
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A cell takes in materials via it’s cell
membrane. Therefore, the larger the
surface area of the cell membrane, the more
efficiently it can take in nutrients.
However, if a cell gets too big it’s volume
grows faster than it’s surface area and it
won’t be able to take in enough nutrients or
get rid of enough waste to survive.
Are Viruses Alive?
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NO!!! They are not made of cells!!!
This is why antibiotics will not help you
if you are sick because of a virus. You
can’t kill something that was never
alive in the first place.
Antibiotics are for illnesses caused by
bacteria, NOT viruses!
Homeostasis
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Maintaining a constant internal
environment regardless of the external
environment.
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Usually it refers to maintaining a constant
temperature and pH.
Energy
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The source of energy for most living things is the
SUN!!!
The SUN is the catalyst for photosynthesis. (plants,
algae, and certain bacteria)
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The products of photosynthesis are the reactants for
cellular respiration.
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6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon Dioxide and Water in the presence of sunlight yields
Glucose and Oxygen.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
ALL LIVING THINGS DO CELLULAR RESPIRATION!!!
The energy in all living things is ATP.
Cells: Animal VS. Plant
Things in Common
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Both animal & plant cells have the
following main organelles:
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Nucleus – holds DNA
Mitochondria – cellular respiration
Ribosomes – makes proteins
Cell Membrane – semi-permeable
How Are Plant Cells Different?
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Usually rectangular in shape
Cell Wall – gives plants their shape
Chloroplasts - photosynthesis
Extremely large vacuoles – storing
water
Mitosis VS. Meiosis
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When one cell divides to
become two.
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Used for growth and
repair.
The two daughter cells
maintain the same number
of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
Humans normally have 46
chromosomes; 47 if you
have Down’s Syndrome.
When one cell divides to
become four. In females,
three of the cells die,
leaving only one viable cell.
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Used for making gametes
(sperm & eggs)
The four daughter cells
have half as many
chromosomes as the
parent cell.
Humans normally have 23
chromosomes in their
gametes.
Diffusion
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When a substance moves into or out
of a cell from a high concentration to a
low concentration.
When that substance is water, we call
it osmosis.
Enzymes
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Type of protein.
Act as a catalyst in living things to speed up
chemical reactions. (ex. – digestion)
Whatever the enzyme is breaking down is called
the substrate, and must fit with it like a puzzle
piece.
During the reaction, the substrate is broken down,
but the enzyme retains its shape and can be used
again.
Require very specific temperature and pH.
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If the temperature or pH is too high or too low, the reaction
will slow down!!!
Macromolecules
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Carbohydrates
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Give your body energy
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Building blocks are monosaccharides
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Mono – glucose
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Di – sugar
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Poly – starch, fiber
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Any food that grows from the ground
Proteins
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Build muscle and help you heal
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Building blocks are amino acids
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Any food that comes from an animal & soy
Lipids
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Make up cell membranes; insulation; stores energy
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Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol
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Animal fat, butter, oils
Nucleic Acids
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Stores genetic information
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Building blocks are nucleotides
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DNA & RNA
Genetics
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DNA
Double stranded
(double helix)
Nitrogenous bases are
Cytosine, Guanine,
Adenine, Thymine
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C=G
A=T
Cannot leave the
nucleus.
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RNA
Single stranded
Nitrogenous bases are
Cytosine, Guanine,
Adenine, Urasil
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C=G
A=U
Leaves the nucleus.
How Does DNA Work?
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DNA codes for proteins (amino acids).
Proteins are expressed as traits.
Know how to read the amino acid
chart!
Genetics
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Genotype
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A type of gene.
Represented by
two alleles (BB, Bb,
bb)
BB – homozygous
dominant
Bb – heterozygous
Bb – homozygous
recessive
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Phenotype
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The physical trait
(brown hair, blue
eyes, lactose
intolerant, etc.)
Sex-Linked Traits
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Only on the X chromosome.
Female = XX
Male = XY
Females are less likely to be affected
because they have a back-up X, males do
not.
Females can be carriers if they have the
allele on only one X. This means that the
female does not have the trait herself, but
can still pass it on to her children.
CoDominance – Blood Types
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Genotypes
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AA or AO
BB or BO
AB
OO
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Phenotypes
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A
B
AB
O
Blood type O is the universal donor. This means that regardless of
what blood type you have, your body will accept O type blood.
Blood type AB is the universal receiver. This means that if you
have AB blood, they can give you any blood type and your body
will accept it.
Pedigrees
Pedigrees
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Traces the history of a trait through a
family.
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Circles = females
Squares = males
Colored in = affected (they have the trait)
Connecting Line = they have children
together
Gel Electrophoresis
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A way to test DNA to
determine evolutionary
relatedness, paternity, or
guilt/innocence in instances
of crime.
The bands represent
fragments of DNA.
For paternity, half the DNA
bands must match the
child’s DNA bands.
To determine guilt in a
court of law, the evidence
DNA bands must match the
suspect DNA bands
EXACTLY!!!
Evolution & DNA
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The more similar the DNA the more
closely they are related.
The more different the DNA the more
distantly they are related.
Charles Darwin
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Traveled to the Galapagos Islands, most known for
studying birds and giant tortoises.
He noticed that the birds on different islands had
different beaks because they had adapted to eating
the type of food found on that particular island.
Darwin concluded that all the birds must have
evolved from the same common ancestor.
Evolution by Natural Selection
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1. Overproduction
2. Competition – food, water, space,
mates
3. Variation – caused by mutation
and/or sexual reproduction
4. Reproduction
5. Speciation
Taxonomy
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All stores.
Wal-Mart
Food Side
Cereal Aisle
Post Brand Cereal
Pebbles
Cocoa Pebbles
Food Chain VS. Food Web
Law of Thermodynamics
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Matter and energy are neither created
nor destroyed, just recycled.
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Food Pyramids
Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Ecological Relationships
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Mutualism – both benefit; clownfish
and sea anemone
Commensalism – one benefits, the
other is unaffected; algae growing on
the back of a turtle
Parasitism – one benefits, the other is
harmed (often killed); tapeworm and
human
Biotic VS. Abiotic Factors
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Biotic – things that are alive; animals,
people, plants, bacteria
Abiotic – things that aren’t alive; water,
temperature, pH
Humans & Animals
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The greatest impact that humans have on
wildlife is habitat destruction!!!
When humans use insects or other animals
to control a pest population, that is an
example of a biological control.
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Ex. – Farmers in the vineyards of South America
use chameleons to control the insects that try to
damage the grape crops.
BCR #1
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Genetics – Huntington’s Disease
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A dominant disease that shows no signs or
symptoms until age 30-40. Symptoms include
decreased mental function, loss of muscle
control, etc. There is no cure.
Since this is a dominant disorder (H), a person
with Huntington’s must also have at least one
parent with the same disease (HH or Hh). A
person without Huntington’s is hh.
Some children of Huntington’s parents choose to
be tested at a young age while others prefer not
to find out.
Know how to do a Punnett Square for
Huntington’s!!!
Would you get tested?
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Advantages
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You would know for
sure whether you
have the disease or
not.
You will be able to
plan for the future
accordingly.
You will know the
chances of passing
the disease to your
offspring.
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Disadvantages
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Some people who
find out that they
have Huntington’s
cannot handle
knowing.
The tests can be
expensive and
sometimes
inaccurate.
If Ron has
Huntington’s, he
may not be able to
continue to receive
health insurance.
BCR #2 - Energy Pyramids
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The sun is the original source
of almost all the energy on the
planet. (photosynthesis)
The available energy and
biomass decreases by 90%
with every step of the pyramid.
(Only 10% gets passed on!)
The higher you are on the
pyramid, the more food you
have to eat in order to get the
same amount of energy.
Producers (autotrophs) are
always at the bottom, then
primary consumers
(heterotrophs), then
secondary consumers
(heterotrophs), then tertiary
consumers (heterotrophs).
BCR #3 - Microscopy
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Making a wet mount slide.
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1. Wash and dry slide and cover slip.
2. Place one drop of pond water onto the
slide.
3. Let the cover slip drop onto the slide at
a 45°angle.
BCR #3 Continued
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Using the Microscope
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1. Always carry it using two hands.
2. Plug it in.
3. Place the slide on the stage.
4. Adjust the diaphragm to control the amount of
light.
5. Use the lowest power objective lens and the
coarse adjustment knob to focus.
6. Once in focus, you can switch to a higher
power and use the fine adjustment knob.
BCR #3 Continued
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Making a Biological Drawing
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1. Draw exactly what you see.
2. Always give it a title.
3. Always write your total magnification.
4. Use labels i.e., cell membrane,
ribosomes, flagella, etc.
5. Sign your drawing.