Transcript Levels of Organization

Levels of Organization
Biomolecules: In this section of the
course we will examine carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Biomolecules
• Our examination of these molecules will
consist of the following features. These
are the features you will be responsible
for on the exam.
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General Characteristics
Function
Associated Foods
No chemical structure
Carbohydrates: General
Characteristics
• Carbohydrates are either small, water-
soluble sugars (glucose or fructose) or
chains, such as starch or cellulose.
• If containing:
– 1 sugar molecule = monosaccharide
– 2 sugar molecules = disaccharide
– 2+ sugar molecules = polysacharides
Carbohydrates: General
Characteristics
• Carbohydrates are important energy sources for most
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•
organisms
The general formula is (CH2 O)n
Most of carbon atoms have a hydrogen ( -H ) and a hydroxyl group
(-OH) attached to them.
• When they are dissolved in water the backbone of a sugar usually
“circles up” into a ring.
In ring form, sugar can link together to make bigger molecules.
•
• They are molecules rich in energy.
CARBOHYDRATES
(CYCLING)
H-C=O
-C-OH + 0=C-
H-C-OH
O
H-C-OH
H-C-OH
H
GLUCOSE
-C-O-C-
H2COH
HO-C-H
H-C-OH
OH
CH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
CARBOHYDRATES
(CYCLING)
H-C
-C-OH + 0=C-
H-C-OH
HO-C-H
H-C-OH
H
-C-O-C-
H2COH
O
O
H-C-OH
H-C
OH
CH
OH
OH
OH
OH
Carbohydrates: General
Characteristics
Monosaccharides
• Simple sugar
• Most are either
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metabolized, or are linked
together to form
disaccharides or
polysaccharides
Short life span in cells
Glucose
OTHER MONOSACCHARIDES
HC=O
HCOH
O
HOCH2
OH
HCOH
HCOH
H2COH
RIBOSE
H
H
H
H
OH
H
DEOXYRIBOSE
Carbohydrates: General
Characteristics
Disaccharides
• Short term energy storage
• Two monosaccharides
bonded together.
• C-O-C
• Sucrose
Carbohydrates: General
Characteristics
Polysaccharides
• Long term energy
storage.
• They are polimers
formed by
monosaccharides, that
are bonded together.
• Starch, Cellulose,
Glycogen
POLYSACCHARIDES
H2COH
H2COH
O
O
CH
CH
O
GLYCOGEN
GLUCOSE
alfa1
beta 4
O
The energetic reserve of the animals
is found principally in the skeletal
muscle.
POLYSACCHARIDES
H2COH
H2COH
O
O
CH O
CELLULOSE
GLUCOSE
beta 1
beta4
CH O
Is the most abundant organic molecule
in our planet.
Carbohydrates: Function
• Monosaccharides – Important energy source
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for cells; subunit of which most
polysaccharides are made.
Disaccharides – Principal sugar transported
throughout bodies of land plants. Energy
Transport.
Polysaccharides – Energy storage in plants
and animals, structural material in plants
Carbohydrates: Associated Foods
• Monosaccharides – Fruit sugar
• Disaccharides – Milk sugar, Sugar for your
coffee
• Polysaccharides – Starch (plants),
Glycogen (animals)
Lipids: General Characteristics
• Lipids are a diverse assortment of molecules all
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•
of which share two important features.
1st lipids contain large regions composed almost
entirely of hydrogen and carbon, with nonpolar
carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.
2nd these nonpolar regions make lipids
hydrophobic or insoluble in water.
Lipids: General Characteristics
• There are three classes of lipids
• 1. oils, fats, and waxes, which are similar in
structure and contain only carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
FATS (Triglycerides)
CH2-O- C
O
CH-OOC
CH2-O OC
Lipids : Other Information
• The difference between saturated fatty
acids (fats) and unsaturated fatty acids
(oils) is that saturated have all single
bonds in their carbon chains (as many
Hydrogens as possible) where as
unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds
(not maximum Hydrogens) creating kinks.
Lipids: General Characteristics
• 2. phospholipids,
structurally similar to
oils but also
containing
phosphorus and
nitrogen.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
CH2-O C
O
CH-OOC
O
CH2-O-P-0-R
OH
Lipids : Other Information
Lipids: General Characteristics
• 3. the fused-ring
family of steroids
Lipids: Function
• Lipids have a wide variety of functions, energy•
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storage, water.proofing, bulk of membranes,
hormones
Fats and Oils – are used for long-term energy
storage in both plants and animals. Eg.
ADIPOCYTES in Bears. Also provide protection.
Eg. Kidneys and yellow marrow.
Waxes – form a waterproof coating over the
leaves and stems of land plants. Animals also
synthesize waxes for water proofing, as well as
insects. Structures such as beehives.
Lipids: Function
• Phospholipids – form the plasma
membrane that separates the inside of a
cell from the outside world.
• Steroids – cholesterol which is a vital
component of the membranes of animal
cells. From this other horomose such as
testosterone are produced.
Lipids: Associated Foods
• Fats and oils – animal fat, french fries
• Waxes – plants or bees wax
• Phospholipids – cell membranes
• Steroids – egg yolks (cholesterol)
OTHER LIPID FUNCTIONS
THERMAL ISOLATOR
ANIMALS IN COLD AREAS
ELECTRIC ISOLATOR
MYELIN SHEATHS IN NEURONS
Proteins: General Characteristics
• Proteins are molecules composed of one
or more chains of amino acids.
• Proteins perform many functions, this is
made possible by the diversity of protein
sturctures.
• Enzymes are one the most important
forms of proteins and will be discussed in
detail later in the course.
Proteins: Structure
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
Each amino acid contains the same basic
structure.
• This is a central carbon bonded to four
different functional groups, amino group,
carboxyl group, a hydrogen and a variable
group.
Proteins: Structure
• The nitrogen of the amino group (-NH2) of one
amino acid is joined to the carbon of the carboxyl
group (-COOH) of another amino acid by a single
covalent bond, this bond is called a peptide bond.
• And the resulting chain of two amino acids is called
a peptide.
• More amino acids are added one by one, until the
protein is complete.
Proteins: Structure
Proteins: Structure
• Proteins have four levels of structure.
• Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids
that make up the protein. This sequence is
coded by the genes.
Proteins: Structure
• Secondary Structures are
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formed by slight
attractions of bonded
hydrogens. Some slightly
positive some slightly
negative. This causes
one of two forms in many
proteins.
These structures are
either a helix (like DNA)
or a pleated sheet
Proteins: Structure
• Tertiary Structures are complex three
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dimensional structures.
Disulfide bridges formed between cysteine
amino acids may bring otherwise distant parts of
a single peptide close together.
The most important result of these structures is
whether they become water soluble or water
insoluble depending on if hydrophobic or
hydrophillic amino acids face out.
Proteins: Structure
Proteins: Structure
• Quaternary Structure
is the final level of
structure in proteins
and involves the
attraction of different
tertiary structures
together.
Proteins: Function
• The functions of proteins are diverse, here are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
some examples
Structure - collagen in skin; keratin in hair,
nails, horns
Movement – Actin and myosin in muscle
Defense – Antibodies in bloodstream
Storage - Zeatin in corn seeds
Signals – Growth hormone in bloodstream
Catalysis – Enzymes catalyze nearly every
chemical reaction in our bodies
Nucleic Acids: General
Characteristics
• The amino acid sequence of every protein
in your body is specidied by the genetic
instructions residing in the nuclei of your
cells
• This brings us to the fourth biomolecules,
nucleic acids which make up genes
• Nucleic acids are long chains of similar but
not identical subunits called nucleotides
Nucleic Acids: General
Characteristics
• All nucleotides have a
three part structure:
a five carbon sugar
(ribose or
deoxyribose), a
phosphate group, and
a nitrogen containing
base that differs
among nucleotides.
Nucleic Acids: General
Characteristics
• There are two types of nucleotides, ribose and
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deoxyribose.
There are four different nitrogen containing
bases for deoxyribose nucleotides; adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
There are four different nitrogen containing
bases for ribose nucleotides; adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil
Nucleic Acids: General
Characteristics
• Nucleotides are strung together with the
phosphate group of one bonding to the
sugar of the next.
• Dyoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is formed
from long chains and is the code for
genetice information.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is copied from the
DNA and directs the production of protiens
Nucleic Acids: Function
• DNA – code for proteins.
• RNA – carries genetic code to cytoplasm
• cAMP – carries information from the cell
membrane to other molecules in the cell
• ATP – carry energy from place to place
within a cell
• Coenzymes – promote and guide chemical
reactions
Different Functions Of Biomolecules
• Carbohydrates – energy supply, energy
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transport, energy storage, structure
Lipids – energy-storage, water.proofing, bulk of
membranes, and hormones
Proteins – structure, movement, defense,
storage, signals and catalysts
Nucleic Acids – hold code for protein, carry
code from one location to another, supply
energy, and assist enzymes