Transcript Intro to Carbon-based Molecules: Organic Chemistry

Bell Ringer
What is the importance of Carbon in living things?
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Bell Ringer
• Explain what organic chemistry means?
• What is a polymer?
• What is a monomer?
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Bell Ringer
• What is a monosaccaride? Give an example.
• What is a disaccaride? Give an example.
• What is a polysaccaride? Give an example.
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Bell Ringer
Compare the structure of monosaccarides,
disaccarides, and polysaccarides.
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Are Carbohydrates monomers, polymers or both?
Explain.
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Bell Ringer
What 4 types of carbon compounds are essential for
living things?
Provide an example for each.
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Bell Ringer
How do plants get the nitrogen they need (where and
what form)?
What do plants do with the nitrogen?
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Bell Ringer
Are proteins monomers or polymers or both? Explain.
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Intro to Carbon-based
Molecules:
Organic Chemistry
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Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is
mostly water, the
rest of the cell
consists mostly of
carbon-based
molecules
Organic chemistry
is the study of
carbon compounds
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Organic vs. Inorganic
All compounds can be classified into 2
broad categories:
Organic Compounds- contain carbon
atoms
Examples: Proteins, DNA, Sugars,
Fats
Inorganic Compounds- do not contain
carbon atoms
Examples: Ammonium (NH4+) and
Nitrate (NO3-)
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Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four valence
electrons
Carbon can
share its
electrons with
other atoms to
form up to four
covalent bonds
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Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other
carbons
Form an endless
diversity of
carbon skeletons
(chains,
branched chains,
and rings)
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Hydrocarbons
The simplest carbon
compounds …
Contain only carbon
& hydrogen atoms
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Large Hydrocarbons:
Are the main
molecules in the
gasoline we burn
in our cars
The hydrocarbons
of fat molecules
provide energy for
our bodies
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Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of
organic molecule
has a unique
three-dimensional
shape
The shape
determines its
function in an
organism
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Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules
that consist of
repeated, linked
units are called
polymers
Polymers are built
from smaller,
simpler molecules
called monomers
Biologists call these
large polymers
macromolecules
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Examples of Macromolecules
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
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Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together
many smaller molecules called monomers
Nucleic Acid
Monomer
(Nucleotide)
Nucleic Acid
Polymer (DNA)
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Linking Monomers to Make Polymers
Cells link monomers by a process called
condensation or dehydration synthesis
(removing a molecule of water to form
bonds)
Remove
H
H2O Forms
Remove OH
EX: This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar
Each time a monomer is added to a polymer,
a water molecule is released
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Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down
macromolecules
by a process
called hydrolysis
(adding a
molecule of
water to break
bonds). This is
the reverse of a
Water added to split a double
condensation
sugar
reaction.
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Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large
molecules in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates
Organic compounds
composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen
in a ratio of 1:2:1
Can exist as
monosaccharides,
disaccharides, or
polysaccharides
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Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars
Monomers of
Carbohydrates
Include glucose,
fructose, & galactose
Have the same
chemical, but
different structural
formulas (Isomers)
C6H12O6
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Monosaccharides
Glucose- main
source of energy
for cells
Fructose -found
in fruits
Galactose – found
in milk
-OSE ending
means SUGAR
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Isomers
Glucose &
fructose are
isomers
because
they’re
structures are
different, but
their chemical
formulas are
the same
C6H12O6
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Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures
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Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides
are the main
fuel that cells
use for cellular
work
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Glucose Ring
Structure
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Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a
double sugar
They’re made by
joining two
monosaccharides
Involves removing
a water molecule
(condensation)
Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond
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Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar)
Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar)
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Disaccharides
Sucrose is
composed of
glucose + fructose
Maltose is
composed of 2
glucose molecules
Lactose is made
of galactose +
glucose
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Polysaccharides
Complex
carbohydrates
Composed of many
monosaccharides
linked together to
form a polymer
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Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
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Starch
Starch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants
It includes only glucose
monomers
Plant cells store starch
for energy
Potatoes and grains are
major sources of starch
in the human diet
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Glycogen
Glycogen is an example
of a polysaccharide
in animals. It is a
branched chain of
glucose monomers
Animals store glycogen
for energy
Glycogen is similar in
structure to starch because
BOTH are made of glucose
monomers
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Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant
organic compound on Earth
It provides structure and
support to plant cell walls
It is a major component of
wood
It is also known as dietary
fiber
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Cellulose
SUGARS
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Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot digest cellulose to
get nutrients
They have
bacteria in
their digestive
tracts that can
break down
cellulose
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Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve
WATER
readily in water
MOLECULE
They are
hydrophilic,
or “waterloving”
-OH groups
make them
water soluble
SUGAR
MOLECULE
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Lipids
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Lipids
Large, nonpolar organic molecules
Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing”
Do NOT mix with water
Includes triglycerides, phospholipids
fats, waxes, steroids, pigments& oils
More carbon and hydrogen atoms than
oxygen atoms
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Function of Lipids
Fats store energy (more than
carbohydrates) in long term storage,
help to insulate the body, and cushion
and protect organs
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Types of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids have the
maximum number of hydrogens bonded
to the carbons (all single bonds
between carbons)
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than
the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons (a double bond
between carbons)
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Types of Fatty Acids
Single
Bonds in
Carbon
chain
Double bond in carbon chain
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Triglyceride
Composed of
Glycerol & 3
fatty acid chains
Glycerol forms
the “backbone”
of the fat
Organic Alcohol
(-OL ending)
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Triglyceride
Glycerol
Fatty Acid Chains
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Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion
of saturated fatty acids & exist as
solids at room temperature (butter,
margarine, shortening)
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Fats in Organisms
Most plant and fish oils tend to be low
in saturated fatty acids and high in
unsaturated fatty acids & exist as
liquids at room temperature (oils)
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Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of
glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Fatty Acid Chain
Glycerol
Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol
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Waxes
A wax is a structural lipid
Contains a long fatty-acid chain joined
to a long alcohol chain.
Waxes are waterproof and form
protective coatings on plants and
protective layers in animals (such as
earwax)
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Lipids & Cell Membranes
• Cell membranes are made
•
•
of lipids called
phospholipids
Phospholipids have a head
that is polar & attract
water (hydrophilic)
Phospholipids also have 2
tails that are nonpolar and
do not attract water
(hydrophobic)
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Steroids
The carbon skeleton
of steroids is bent
to form 4 fused
rings
Cholesterol is
the “base
steroid” from
which your body
produces other
steroids
Cholesterol
Testosterone
Estrogen
Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids
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Nucleic Acids
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Nucleic Acids
Store and transfer hereditary
(genetic) information
Contain information for making all
the body’s proteins
Two types exist --- DNA &
RNA
Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorous
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Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Nucleic
acids are
polymers of
nucleotides
Phosphate
group
Phosphate
Thymine (T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Base
Sugar
Nucleotide
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Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer
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Nucleic Acids
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Bases
Each DNA
nucleotide has one
of the following
bases:
–Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
–Guanine (G)
–Thymine (T)
–Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
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Guanine (G)
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Nucleotide Monomers
Backbone
Form long chains
called DNA
Nucleotide
Nucleotides are
joined by sugars
& phosphates on
the side
Bases
DNA strand
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DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Two strands of
DNA join
together to form
a double helix
Base
pair
Contains the
sugar
deoxyribose
Double helix
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RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or U)
Ribose sugar
has an extra
–OH or
hydroxyl
group
It has the
base uracil (U)
instead of
thymine (T)
Uracil
Phosphate
group
Sugar (ribose)
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ATP – Cellular Energy
•ATP is used by cells for energy
•Adenosine triphosphate
•Made of a nucleotide with 3
phosphate groups
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ATP – Cellular Energy
• Energy is stored in the chemical bonds
of ATP
• The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH
ENERGY
• Breaking the last phosphate bond
•
releases energy for cellular work and
produces ADP and a free phosphate
ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be
rejoined to the free phosphate to
make more ATP
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Proteins
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Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids
Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen
All proteins are made of 20 different
amino acids linked in different orders
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20 Amino Acid Monomers
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Structure of Amino Acids
Amino acids have a
central carbon with
4 things bonded to
it:
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
R group
Amino group –NH2
Carboxyl group -COOH
Hydrogen
Side group
-H
Side
groups
-R
Serine-hydrophillic
Leucine -hydrophobic
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Linking Amino Acids
Carboxyl
Cells link amino
acids together to
Amino
make proteins
Side
Group
The process is
called condensation
or dehydration
Peptide bonds
form to hold the
amino acids
together
Dehydration
Synthesis
Peptide Bond
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Dipeptide- two amino acids bonded
together
Polypeptide- long chains of amino acids.
Proteins are composed of one or more
polypeptides
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Functions of Proteins
1. Enzymes (saliva and catalase)
2.Structure (keratin and collagen)
3.Transport (molecules in and out of cell)
4.Movement (muscles)
5.Defense against disease (antibodies)
6.Storage (bean seed proteins)
7.Others
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Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts
or enzymes
Thousands of different enzymes exist
in the body
Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions by weakening bonds, thus
lowering the amount of activation
energy needed for the reaction
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Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins.
Their folded conformation
creates an area known as the
active site.
The nature and arrangement of
amino acids in the active site
make it specific for only one
type of substrate (the reactant
being catalyzed).
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Enzyme + Substrate = Product
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How the Enzyme Works
Enzymes
are
reusable!!!
Active site
changes
SHAPE
Called
INDUCED
FIT
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Primary Protein Structure
The primary
structure is
the specific
sequence of
amino acids in
a protein
Called
polypeptide
Amino Acid
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Protein Structures
Secondary protein structures occur
when protein chains coil or fold
When protein chains called polypeptides
join together, the tertiary structure
forms because R groups interact with
each other
In the watery environment of a cell,
proteins become globular in their
quaternary structure
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Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS
Hydrogen bond
Pleated sheet
Amino acid
Polypeptide
(single subunit)
(a) Primary structure
Hydrogen bond
Alpha helix
(b) Secondary
structure
(c) Tertiary
structure
(d) Quaternary structure
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Denaturing Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can
denature (unfold) a protein so it no
longer works
Cooking denatures
protein in eggs
Milk protein separates into
curds & whey when it
denatures
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Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for
another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell
disease
1
2
(b) Sickled red blood cell
6
3
6
7. . . 146
4
5
Normal hemoglobin
(a) Normal red blood cell
1
3
2
7. . . 146
4
5
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
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Other Important Proteins
•Blood sugar level is controlled by
a protein called insulin
•Insulin causes the liver to uptake
and store excess sugar as
Glycogen
The cell membrane also contains
proteins
Receptor proteins help cells
recognize other cells
•
•
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INSULIN
Cell membrane with proteins &
phospholipids
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Summary of Key Concepts
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Macromolecules
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Macromolecules
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