Transcript Chapter 12
Chapter 12 Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance Meaning & Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance Renaissance – french, literally means “rebirth” Refers to the cultural movement that began in Italy between 13501550 – Term first used in 1860 by Swiss historian, Jacob Burckhardt Sometimes considered the “birthplace of the modern world” Renaissance Italy was an age of recovery from a 14th century that saw the Black Death, political disorder, and economic recession Recovery was accompanied by a rediscovery of the cultures of classical antiquity (Greece & Rome) Emphasis also began to shift from the Church as the center of life to the individual and individual achievement – Leon Battista Alberti – “Men can do all things if they will.” High regard for human dignity and human potential led to the social ideal of the universal person (l’uomo universale) The Making of Renaissance Society Economic Recovery 14th cent.- Italian merchants had expanded their trade lines along the Atlantic seaboard – Hard hit by plague , Italian merchants suffered while the Hanseatic League (northern Europe) prospered early 15th cent.- silting of the port at Bruges caused the Hansa to enter a slow decline – This allowed Italian trade to recover dramatically, especially in Venice Italian city-states would remain powerful until well into the 16th century Industries Old & New While Venice prospered through trade, Florence began to rise through industrial power Wool, silk-making, glassware, metalworking industries and a stable economy made Florence one of the wealthiest cities in Italy. The economy was thanks to advanced banking procedures that were not in use elsewhere – a system of checking accounts – lines of credit – new accounting methods By the 15th century, House of Medici was the greatest bank in Europe – Branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Bologna, Pisa (Italy), London (England), Avignon, Bruges, Lyons (France) & Antwerp (Belgium) Medici were also principle bankers of the papacy – meaning big profits & influence in the papal court Medici family basically controlled “republican” Florentine govt. 14341494 Social Changes in the Renaissance Social structure basically same as Middle Ages: 3 fundamental estates – 1st Estate – Clergy – 2nd Estate – Nobility – 3rd Estate – peasants & city dwellers Moving into the 15th century, a reconstruction of the aristocracy was well under way. – Nobility constituted 2-3% of a given country’s population, but controlled society Medieval lords had been the knights that served to lead the king’s army, by this time, more was expected of the noble lords – Still served as military officers and held important political posts – more was expected, as explained in Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier (p 317) – Nobility would follow these guidelines for hundreds of years 3rd Estate accounted for more than 90% of Europe’s population – Urban poverty increased dramatically during this period Slavery had diminished in the early Middle Ages, but rebounded in the 14th century – adults served as workers for urban craftsmen – girls served as nursemaids – boys as playmates of aristocratic children Family in Renaissance Italy Family referred to: parents, children, servants (if wealthy), grandparents, widowed mothers, & unmarried sisters families related and bearing the same surname lived close and may dominate an entire neighborhood your family name was very important – A crime committed by one member, reflected on the entire family – retaliation by an offended family would be bloody & involve a large number of people Marriage Usually arranged by parents to strengthen family or business ties Bride’s family had to pay a dowry, based on each family’s social standing – larger dowry indicated bride (and family) move up in social status Family Unit Father – center of family makes all decisions, authority absolute Mother – main duty was to bear & raise children Children – had no rights until adulthood & did not become adult until father formally announced emancipation Italian States in the Renaissance By the mid 15th cent. 5 major powers dominated the Italian penninsula: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States & Naples northern Italy was split between Venice & Milan 1447 – Francesco Sforza, a condottieri (mercenary general), turned on his employers & conquered Milan, becoming it’s new Duke Through most of the 15th cent, Florence was ruled by the Medici family – Cultural center of Renaissance In the 14th cent., the pope lived in France, allowing some cities to break away from the Papal States Backward kingdom in southern Italy & Sicily, shared little in the glory of the Renaissance Independent City-States & the Role of Women Outside of the major states, there was a number of independent citystates ruled by powerful families – Mantua, Ferrara, & the most famous was Urbino Urbino was ruled by Frederigo de Montefeltro (duke 1444-82) and under his rule, the city prospered Unlike many rulers or condottiere, he was honest & beloved by his subjects Women in the City-States In the smaller courts of the cities, noblewomen had much more authority Battista Sforza (wife of Duke Montefeltro) was well educated and responsible for attracting many artists to the court of Urbino – Since Montefeltro was a condottiere, his wife served as governor in his absence In Mantua, Isabella d’Este had a reputation as an effective ruler & clever negotiator before & after her husband died Warfare in Italy Fragmentation of Italy led to a balance of power that kept any one state from getting too strong 1454 – The Peace of Lodi – ended nearly 5 decades of fighting between the states – created alliance system (Florence, Milan, Naples vs. Venice, Papal States) – failed to foster lasting cooperation or common foreign policy European kingdoms got stronger, Italy pulled into national struggles Balance of power broke down, the Italian Wars began 1494 – feeling politically isolated, Ludovico Sforza (Milan) invited Charles VIII (France) to intervene in Italian politics Charles marched 30,000 men into Italy & occupied Naples The other states turned to Ferdinand of Aragon (Spain) – Fighting between France & Spain continued for nearly 30 years 1527 - Spain sacked Rome, controls Italian penninsula Italy would not achieve independence or national unification until 1870 Birth of Modern Diplomacy Medieval ambassadors served the idea of peace in general, not a specific lord Modern diplomatic system was a product of Renaissance Italy Since the small states were constantly threatened by neighbors, resident diplomats were sent to be ambassadors & spies – During the Italian Wars, this concept spread throughout Europe Also marks the beginning of modern politics where the interests of the state supersede everything all other concerns Machiavelli and the New Statecraft b.1469 – d.1527 Entered politics 4 years after Medici were driven from power by French in 1494 secretary for Florentine Council of Ten, served as diplomat exiled after Medici family regained control in 1512 Lived on a small estate outside of Florence Wrote books on politics since his political career was over – The Prince (1513) – The Art of War (1521) The Prince The Prince written in 1513, not published until 1532 After publishing, Machiavelli posthumously received a reputation for being unscrupulous focused on acquisition and expansion of political power & restoring and maintaining order in his time – Felt that political system was corrupt & feared unfit rulers flying in the face of medieval political theorists, basically said that Christian moral principles had no place in politics (bottom left p.324) a prince’s attitude toward power must be based on his understanding of human nature (self-centered) The prince acts on behalf of the state & must be willing to let his conscience sleep – “The ends justifies the means.” Poses important questions to the prince like “Is it better to be loved than feared ?” (box p.325) Italian Renaissance Humanism individualism & secularism – two most important characteristics of the Italian Renaissance – most noticeable in intellectual & artistic realms humanism – most important literary movement associated w/ the Renaissance – intellectual movement based on the classical works of Greece & Rome – Humanists studied the liberal arts – many humanists served as humanities teachers, others served as secretaries in the state govt. or courts of Italian princes or popes Emergence of Humanism Petrarch (1303-1374), father of Italian Ren. Humanism Became a writer instead of a lawyer 1st intellectual to regard the Middle Ages as a period of darkness sought lost classical manuscripts – his preoccupation w/ classics led humanists to use works of Cicero & Virgil as models humanist beliefs became related to Florentine civic pride, giving rise to what is now called civic humanism – earlier humanists rejected public & family life for one of solitude – In busy Florence, intellectuals began to take a new role, using Roman statesman, Cicero, as their model – believed it was the duty of the individual live an active life for one’s state One only grows morally & intellectually through fulfilling this duty Humanism flourished in Florence because of wealthy patrons like Cosimo de’ Medici who founded the Platonic Academy translator Marsilio Ficino dedicated his life to exposing people to Plato’s philosophies through his Neo-Platonism (p327) Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) – wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man (p 328) – echoes Alberti when it comes to unlimited human potential – “To him is granted to have whatever he chooses, to be whatever he wills.” Education in the Renaissance Ren. Humanists believed that human beings could be drastically changed by education New classes, secondary schools & universities developed all over Italy – Most famous founded in 1423 in Mantua by Vittorino da Feltre At the core of academic training were “liberal studies” or “humanities” – History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music – humanist education would produce individuals that were wise, virtuous, and would possess the rhetorical skill to convince others to do the same – small number of lower-class children were provided free educations – schools primarily geared to education of the elite (future leaders) females were largely absent from these schools – encouraged to learn all subjects except mathematics & rhetoric Humanism and History The sense of the classical period, “dark” ages, & their own period led historians to a new sense of chronology or periodization in history Humanists also secularized history, during the Middle Ages historians had been monks and thus history was viewed through theology Causation in history changed – Middle Ages – something happened because of God – Renaissance – stressed causation by political & cultural forces Impact of Printing the printing press made immediate impact on Europe – biggest advance was movable metal type – Development culminated in 1455, Johann Gutenberg began using his new printing press the “Gutenberg Bible” was the first book printed on a European press By 1500, over 1000 presses throughout Europe & 40,000 titles in print The Artistic Renaissance “Hence the painter will produce pictures of small merit if he takes for his standard the pictures of others, but if he will study from natural objects he will bear good fruit…Those who take their standard from any one but nature…weary themselves in vain.” – Leonardo da Vinci imitation of nature was a Renaissance artist’s primary goal many Renaissance works were religious in subject, but the goal was to make these figures look more realistic than medieval predecessors because of the wealthy patrons in Florence, many famous artists either came to the city to work or were from the area Renaissance Artists Masaccio (1401-1428) copied the fresco style of Giotto from the 14th century – produced the first “masterpiece” of the Renaissance The Tribute Money Donatello’s (1386-1466) David was the first freestanding nude since Roman antiquity Sandro Botticelli’s (14451510) interest in Greek & Roman mythology (like The Birth of Venus) show a definite break from medieval artistic values Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) born in Vinci, a small town outside Florence illegitimate son of a wealthy lawyer & a peasant girl from Vinci lived with his mother, but father paid for best education he could afford multi-talented: artist, sculptor, architect, inventor, poet, mathematician, scientist, dancer, & singer while he is known for his artistic contributions, he considered himself more of an inventor & scientist overabundance of talents caused him to take his artistry lightly called the genius of the Renaissance not for what he did, but for what he dreamed of doing recorded in his Notebooks – his inventions were too advanced for the time’s technology – sketches of flying machines, helicopters, submarines, elevators, machine guns & turbine engines Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475 - 1564) born in village of Caprese, grew up in Florence his best teachers were the masterpieces around him: studied works of Masaccio, Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, & Donatello continually sought challenge: – preferred hard physical labor of marble sculpting to painting – when painting, he chose poses very difficult to draw considered the male nude the foremost subject in art 1490 - 92: studied in the sculpture garden of Lorenzo the Magnificent w/ Bertold Giovanni (Donatello’s teacher) was also a believer in NeoPlatonism Raphael Sanzio (1483 – 1520) born in Urbano, Italy trained under his father, until father died in 1494 moved to Florence in 1505 & worked there until 1508 studied the styles of both Michelangelo & da Vinci while in Florence while in Florence, he painted several madonnas in a style that he became famous for Raphael left Florence for Rome in 1508 & by 1509, Pope Julius II had him working in the Vatican Raphael’s last work was The Transfiguration – left unfinished at his death (died on his birthday: April 6, 1520) Artists & Social Status artists begin their career as apprentices to masters talented apprentices might become master & open a workshop patronage of wealthy upper-class played important role – determined content & purpose of pieces commissioned by end 15th cent., a transformation in the social position of artists occurred – – – – seen as artistic geniuses artists become heroes praised more for creativity that skill as craftsmen Michelangelo referred to as “il Divino” (Divine One) Eccentricities & questionable actions were ignored – mental, social issues ignored; crimes often did little to hamper popularity as status increased, so did profits welcomed as equals into the circles of the political & intellectual elite Is the most famous painting in the world a practical joke? da Vinci was rumored to have a very strange sense of humor Some people theorize that Leonardo used himself as the model for the Mona Lisa Researchers have recently used computers to superimpose a chalk self-sketch over the painting and the eyes, points of the cheek bones, nose, and chin all lined up exactly The European State in the Renaissance second half of 15th century – deterioration of society due to several factors had ended – Black Death & Hundred Years War Monarchs tried to reestablish centralized power – “Renaissance States” or “new monarchies” most prominent examples – France, England & Spain France Hundred Years War left France in ruins,difficult for kings to assert authority – – – – – depopulation desolate farmland ruined commerce unruly nobility but established a strong national feeling of a common enemy (England) Charles VII (1422-1461) used this to strengthen the monarchy – Established a royal army composed of cavalry & archers – got permission of Estates General to levy annual property tax (taille) w/o control of taxation, E.G. much less powerful Louis XI (1461-1483) retained the taille as a permanent tax – known as “the Spider” for his devious ways – Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy tried to create an independent kingdom between France & Germany – When Charles died fighting the Swiss in 1477, Louis absorbed his holdings – Louis XI created a base for later development of a strong monarchy in France England Cost & loss of manpower from Hundred Years War affected England further turmoil: War of the Roses broke out in 1450’s – House of Lancaster (red rose) challanged the House of York (white rose) – 1485 – Henry Tudor def. Yorkist king Richard III (1483-85) Establishes the Tudor Dynasty Becomes Henry VII (1485-1509) reduced internal conflict & established strong monarchy – abolished private armies of the nobility – established the Court of Star Chamber (no juries, torture could be used) Managed state finances expertly – very effective in collecting taxes on the crown lands, judicial fees & fines – used diplomacy to avoid costly wars – avoided calling Parliament regularly to ask for funding Won the support of the gentry & middle class – avoided heavy taxation – enabled him to leave England w/ stable govt. & strengthen the monarchy itself Unification of Spain (p 339) Strongest Spanish kingdoms were Castile & Aragon Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile married in 1469 – each kingdom retained govt. & culture – reorganized the military around a strong infantry – secured the right to select important church officials in Spain Persued strict religious uniformity – Jews & Muslims persecuted – Inquisition introduced in 1478 – 1492 – Jewish people expelled from Spain – 1502 – Muslims expelled from Castile Struggle in Eastern Europe Poland – kings could never establish strong monarchy – Nobles had right to elect the king & reduced peasantry to serfdom by 1511 Hungary – had a strong, well-organized bueracracy – became a eastern European power until the king’s death in 1490 Russia – Ivan III (1462-1505) created principality of Moscow & broke free of Mongol rule in 1480 Ottoman Empire – Byzantine Empire served as buffer between Christian West & Muslim East for centuries – Ottoman Turks conquered Balkans in late 14th cent. – 1453 – Ottomans conquer Constantinople, end Byzantine empire – 1480 – Turks conquer Serbia, Bosnia, & Albania – Late 15th cent. – Ottomans threaten Hungary, Austria, Bohemia – 16th cent. – Holy Roman Emp. Charles V becomes bitter enemy of Turks Decline of Byzantine Empire 600 A.D. 750 A.D. 1403 A.D. The Church in the Renaissance Heresy & Reform Wyclif and Lollardy John Wyclif attacked corruption in the Church & medieval Christian practices believed the Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority rejected all practices not mentioned in scripture – pilgrimages, veneration of saints, most medieval church rituals followers referred to as Lollards Hus & Hussites Lollard ideas spread to Bohemia & reinforced the ideas of John Hus urged elimination of worldliness & corruption and attacked power of papacy in Catholic church The Council of Constance summoned Hus to speak his grievances – arrested, convicted of heresy, & burned at the steak (1415) Attempts to eradicate heresy only seemed to cause more problems Reform was even less successful that reduction of heresy 2 reform decrees passed by the Council of Constance (1414-1418) – Sacrosancta – general council received authority form God, all christians answered to its authority, even the pope – Frequens – ensured regular meetings of the council to ensure church reform 1460 - Pope Pius II declared appeals to council over the head of the pope heretical Renaissance Papacy Sixtus IV – began the Sistine Chapel, relied of nepotism to promote family interests – nepotism: from Greek nepos (nephew) means to favor one’s family Alexander VI – scandalized the church by promoting a son, nephew, & brother of a mistress to cardinal Julius II – “warrior-pope,” patron of the arts, more involved in politics that spiritual guidance Leo X – son of Lorenzo de Medici, pushed Rome to become artistic center of High Renaissance