Transcript Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research
Design
Dr Hilary Engward
Grounded Theory
2
Grounded Theory
3
Paradigms in research
Kuhn,1962: a relatively stable and widely accepted set of theories and
practices that he termed a paradigm.
Two basic paradigms
Important word to
use for LO1
Qualitative
Interpretivism
Positivism
Kuhn, 1962. ‘The Structure of Scientific Revolutions’
H Engward research Studies lecture 2
4
Epistemology
• Epistemology is “the study of the nature of
knowledge and justification” (Schwandt, 2001, p.
71*)
• As shorthand, epistemology can be thought of as
justification of knowledge.
• For red refs, see hand-out.
methodology
• “a theory and analysis of how research should
proceed” (Harding, 1987, p. 2)
• “analysis of the assumptions, principles, and
procedures in a particular approach to
inquiry” (Schwandt, 2001, p. 161)
• methodology provides justification for the
methods of a research project.
Methods
• “techniques for gathering evidence” (Harding,
1987, p. 2)
• “procedures, tools and techniques” of
research (Schwandt, 2001, p. 158).
• Methods can be thought of as research action.
What is qualitative research
• By exploring
experiences of
individuals/groups
• By analysing
interactions and
communications in the
making
• By analysing documents
(texts. Images, film)
• To inquire into:
• How people construct
their world
• What they are doing
• What is meaningful to
them
• Gain insight/ways of
understanding
• Social context is crucial: it is through our social
interactions with others (e.g. health
professionals, patients) that our
understandings and preconceptions about the
nature of reality are formed.
• This is not a one way process – it is through
interaction with others that social realities are
created.
Relationship between paradigms, methodology and data
collection:
Paradigm
Methodology
Data collection
methods
Positivist/quantitative
Survey
Experiment
Questionnaires
Structured interviews
Structured observation
Naturalist/Interpretative/
Qualitative
Phenomenology
Unstructured interviews
Participants
reports/accounts
Ethnography
Observation
Informal interviews
Field notes
Phenomenology:
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The nature of the world cannot be fully
known.
All that can be known are people’s
perceptions and interpretations of that
world.
In its strongest sense, phenomenology
asserts that reality is only found in
people’s minds, rather than external
objects.
Phenomenological inquiry probes and
draws from different sources of meaning
One of the consequences of this is that
reality is not a fixed entity, rather it
changes and develops according to
experiences and the social context within
which they find themselves.
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Phenomenological inquiry draws on
different types and sources of meaning.
For example, in the study of “Childhood
Secrets” van Manen & Levering used a
variety of sources of meaning, such as
everyday experience, language sources
(metaphors, sayings, boundary meanings,
linguistic differentiations), social science,
historical, cultural, literary sources.
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Husserl to explain how individuals give meanings to social phenomena in their
everyday lives. The role of phenomenology was therefore to explore “the essence
of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view.” Smith D.
Husserl. London: Routledge, 2007.
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Concentrate on exploring how individuals make sense of the world in terms of the
meanings and classifications they employ.
•
As such, phenomenology aims to provide accounts that offer an insight into the
subjective “lived” experience of individuals. Schutz A. The phenomenology of the
social world. New York: Northwestern University Press, 1967.
Given the emphasis, phenomenological studies do not attempt to generate wider
explanations; rather their focus is on providing research accounts for individuals in a
specific setting.
Phenomenology
‘Descriptive phenomenology’ Husserl (1859 – 1938)
‘What do we know as persons?’
‘Interpretive phenomenology’
Martin Heidegger (1889 – 1976)
‘What is being?’
• Bracketing, Intuiting, Analyzing, Describing
Transcendental phenomenology Husserl, Eugen Fink, Tymieniecka, and Van Breda.
Existential phenomenology is associated with Heidegger, Sartre, de Beauvoir, MerleauPonty, Marcel
Hermeneutical phenomenology Heidegger, Gadamer, and Ricoeur.
Linguistical phenomenology Blanchot, Derrida and Foucault, (even though the latter
denied that he was a phenomenologist.)
Ethical phenomenology Levinas, under whom Derrida studied the works of Husserl and
Heidegger.
Phenomenology of practice the employment of phenomenological method in applied or
professional contexts such as clinical psychology, medicine, education or pedagogy, nursing,
counselling, and also to the use of phenomenological method in contexts of practical concerns
of everyday living.
Early protagonists of phenomenology of practice are medical practitioners such as the
psychiatrists Binswanger and Van den Berg, clinical psychologists such Buytendijk and
Linschoten, and educators or pedagogues such as Langeveld and Bollnow. Examples of
contemporary scholars who work within contexts of phenomenology of practice are Amadeo
Giorgi (psychology), Patricia Benner (nursing), and Max van Manen (education and pedagogy).
http://www.phenomenologyonline.com/
A phenomenological approach gather data in the form of in-depth semi structured or
unstructured interviews and personal documents such as diaries.
For example, Porter et. al used in-depth individual interviews to understand the
meanings people living in residential homes held about their caregivers, Porter E,
Ganong H, Drew N, Lanes T. A new typology of home-care helpers.
Gerontologist2004;44:750-9.
Mitchell gathered the meanings of being a senior from narrative stories written by older
people about their personal experiences in later life. Mitchell G. The meaning of being a
senior. Nurs Sci Q1994;7:70-9.
Phenomenology example
• A researcher using phenomenology would approach the study of doctornurse interprofessional interactions by exploring how individual doctors
and nurses made sense of their ward-based interprofessional experiences.
• Such a study would aim to elicit, through interviews, the meanings each
individual attached to their interactions and the classifications they
employed to make sense of their working lives within this context.
• Data would be analysed inductively, focusing on allowing meanings to
emerge from the interviews.
• Specifically, this process would entail examining statements from the
interviews and clustering them to form common themes linked to
understanding the meanings that doctors and nurses each individually
attached to their interactions.
Interviews
• Semi-structured – focussed
questions, outline sequence but
may vary
• Unstructured – open
questions, conversational
approach
Interview data in Qualitative designs
 Semi-structured or unstructured interviews
are most common in qualitative research
 Provide large amounts of relatively
unconstrained data
 Structure varies according to research
methodology and amount of focus required to
address research questions
An ethnographic study of professional
relationships
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This ethnographic study took place in a large general hospital in the United Kingdom. It aimed to
understand, in depth, the nature of hospital based nurse-doctor relationships in the wake of changes to
health policy and to the delivery of professional education. The author, a nurse, undertook participant
observations for 10 months, during which she worked as a nurse (on an unpaid basis) with doctors,
nurses, managers, and auxiliary staff on both a surgical and a medical ward. To gain a candid insight into
these professionals’ views, she undertook informal interviews with staff while they worked together. She
also collected 57 tape recorded interviews, each lasting 60 to 90 minutes, with nurses, doctors, auxiliaries,
and managers. These explored in more depth participants’ views of their interprofessional relationships.
Documentary data were also generated through analysis of organisational documents and through
attendance at professional and managerial meetings.
The author undertook an inductive approach to data analysis, in which meanings emerged from the data
through exploration of all data sets. In addition, she used data from different sources (observations,
interviews, documentary data) to generate a more comprehensive understanding in the emerging analysis.
The author drew upon negotiated order perspective—a sociological theory developed by Strauss to frame
and illuminate the findings from her analysis. She also discussed her reflexive role in the study, and as a
nurse, how that helped her secure access into this clinical setting, and how it helped her attain richer
insights into the nature of nurse-doctor relationships in relation to how they negotiate professional
boundaries in their clinical work.
Allen D. The nursing-medical boundary: a negotiated order? Sociol Health Illn1997;19:498-520.
ETHNOGRAPHY
• To learn from a cultural group
• The process of describing a culture/way of life
from peoples' point of view.
• Each person is a reflection of their culture:
gestures, symbols, sayings has implicit, tacit
meaning for others in that culture.
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Aim – to attain ‘insiders’ view of the group under study
People don’t always do what they say they are doing
Is mostly done covertly,
See work of: Clifford Geertz; James Clifford; Howard Becker;
Larry Levine;
Observation
• “My method has been
ethnographic,
describing the customs
and habits and
assumptions of
medicines teachers and
learners as I have
observed them”
(Montgomery
Hunter (1939)
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During their observations,
ethnographers routinely use informal
or conversational interviews, which
allow them to discuss, probe
emerging issues, or ask questions
about unusual events in a naturalistic
manner.
Because of the “casual” nature of this
type of interview technique it can be
useful in eliciting highly candid
accounts from individuals.
Ethnographers also gather formal indepth interviews and documentary
data such as minutes of meetings,
diaries, and photographs.
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This method is used where there is a
need to go ‘beyond what people say’.
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Researcher may observe as
– An outsider – unacknowledged
by observees
– An insider – acknowledged by
observees*
– A participant (participant
observation)
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* ? affects the nature of the
observation
This also raised ethical considerations
see
http://www.theasa.org/ethics/
guidelines.shtml
• There is some evidence
that observation alone
may change how people
behave
• Hawthorne effect
Lots of note taking:
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Involves observation and note taking.
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Anthropologist Clifford Geertz ‘thick description’.
For about every half hour of observation, an ethnographic researcher would
write notes for about two hours.
These notes would contain rich, detailed descriptions of everything that went
on.
The notes would capture as factual a description of the drama as possible to
permit multiple interpretations, and most of all, to later infer cultural
meaning.
A coding procedure (much like content analysis) would be used later for this.
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Ethnography therefore is a written representation of a culture (or selected
aspects of)
? Authorial signature – to convince the reader the accuracy od their accounts
(Geertz)
Nine observational dimensions and their descriptions
Space—Physical layout of the place(s)
Actor—Range of people involved
Activity—A set of related activities that occur
Object—The physical things that are present
Act—Single actions people undertake
Event—Activities that people carry out
Time—The sequencing of events that occur
Goal—Things that people are trying to accomplish
Feeling—Emotions felt and expressed
Spradley J. Participant observation. New York: Holt, 1980
Observations
• Observations may be:
• Highly Structured
– fixed categories, often ‘tick-box’, produces numerical counts
• Semi-structured
– focussed observations, broad categories, data recorded in field notes
• Unstructured
– general observations, many aspects recorded, data recorded in field
notes
May be collected by;
• Detailed written notes- during and after event
• Audio recording (of thoughts, description, of setting)
• Video recording (of setting, of behaviour)
CASE STUDY
 One person you want to generalise to others of
that type.
 Social Work and Clinical Psychology have
embraced the value of a single-subject (sample
size N=1) or case study approach.
 Almost all case studies involve unstructured
interview
 The idea is to find a subject so typical that he/she
seems to reflect others.
Focus groups
• Data from small numbers of people is collected
simultaneously
– Large amounts of data quickly
– Interaction generates lively debate
– Group management and recording data accurately can
be a problem.
Let’s Play  90 mins.
Task:
• To explore how
students use their
study time.
Half group will be:
Ethnographers
Half will be
phenomenologists.
To explore how students use their study time.
Ethnogrophers
Split into 2 groups:
Construct 2 observation
schedules (semi and open)
(30 mins)
Pen and paper, go be a
(participant?)observer in
the library.
Make lots of notes about what
you observe. (30 mins)
Be patient and concise.
Phenomenologists:
Split into 2 groups:
Construct an interview
schedule to inquire into how
students use their study time
(unstructured or semi). (30
mins)
Go interview people. Make
notes about the interview. (30
mins)
What have you found? Ask:
• In your methodology
groups:
• Make notes on your findings:
• compare your data - what have
you found out?
• Summarise your findings to each
other
• Was there a difference between
the experience of using
open/semi structured?
• As a whole group:
• What type of data did you
collect?
• Did you look/ask for the ‘right’
things?
• Where you able to record
everything?
• How do you, as the researcher,
know that what you have
recorded is really what
happened/was said?
• What would you do differently
next time?
30 mins
Overall thinking about qualitative
methodology
Be clear, qualitative research
• good at surfacing deep issues and making voices heard
• Provides a picture of a social reality at a time for a
sample (don’t underestimate the power of sample)
• But it is not an exact process -all you can do is present
a snapshot
• Aim to make this as credible/intelligible as possible to
yourself, to other researchers and to the participants
(tell the story)
• There will always be limitations, irrespective of
paradigm/methodology/method of data
collection…………
Reflexivity
• The relationship a researcher shares with the
world they are investigating
In its most limited sense, reflexivity is presented in
the form of a description of the ethnographer’s
ideas and experiences, which can be used by
readers to judge the possible impact of these
influences on a study.
For a more robust account of, see Alveson &
Skoldberg
QualitativeTerms
Question formation:
- Explore
- Perceptions
Credibility of findings:
- Trustworthiness
- Applicability
Terms to avoid
Inappropriate/debateable terms
- Prove
- Hypothesis
- Bias
- Validity
- Reliability
- Generalizability
References and further reading
Crotty M. Foundations of social research: meaning and perspective in the research process. London: Sage, 1998.
Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, eds. Handbook of qualitative research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000.
Layder D. Understanding social theory. London: Sage, 1994.
Ritzer G, Smart B, eds. Handbook of social theory. London: Sage, 2003.
Roberts B. Micro social theory. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006.
Scamber G, ed. Sociological theory and medical sociology. London: Tavistock, 1987.
Stones R, ed. Key sociological thinkers. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998.
Cicourel, A (1967) Method and Measurement in Sociology New York, Free Press.
Glaser, B & Strauss, A (1967) The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research
Chicago, Aldine
Gorden, R L (1969) Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques and Tactics Homewood Ill, Dorsey Press
Husserl, E (1970) trans D Carr Logical investigations New York, Humanities Press
Hycner, R H (1985) "Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data," Human
Studies 8, 279-303
Measor, L (1985) "Interviewing: a Strategy in Qualitative Research" in R Burgess (ed) Strategies of
Educational Research: Qualitative Methods. Lewes, Falmer Press.
Moustakas, C (1994) Phenomenological research methods London, Sage
Oakley, A (1981) "Interviewing women: a contradiction in terms" in H Roberts (ed) Doing Feminist
Research London, Routledge & Kegan Paul
Plummer, K (1983) Documents of Life: an introduction to the problems and literature of a humanistic
method London, Unwin Hyman
Schutz, A (1970) ed H R Wagner On phenomenology and social relations Chicago, Chicago
University Press
Spradley, J P (1979) The Ethnographic Interview New York, Holt Rhinehart & Watson
Books
Atkinson P, Coffey A, Delamont S, Lofland J, Lofland L, eds. Handbook of ethnography.
London: Sage, 2001.
Fetterman D. Ethnography: step by step. 2nd ed. London: Sage, 1988.
Fielding N. Ethnography. In: Researching social life. London: Sage, 1993:155-71.
Hammersley M, Atkinson P. Ethnography: principles in practice. 2nd ed. London:
Routledge, 1995.
Spradley J. The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, 1979.
Spradley J. Participant observation. New York: Holt, 1980
Geertz C. The interpretation of cultures: selected essays. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Journal articles
Atkinson P, Pugsley L. Making sense of ethnographic research in medical education. Med
Educ 2005;39:228-34.
Charmaz K, Oleson V. Ethnographic research in medical sociology: its foci and distinctive
contributions. Sociol Methods Res 1997;25:452-94.
Fine G. Ten lies of ethnography. J Contemp Ethnogr 1993;22:267-94.
Jeffrey B, Troman G. Time for ethnography. Br Educ Res J 30:535-48
Savage J. Ethnography and health care. BMJ 2000;321:1400-2.
Fine, G.A., (1993) Ten lies of ethnography: Moral dilemmas of field research. Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), 267.
Neyland, D (2008) Organizational Ethnography. London: Sage
Punch, M. (1986) The Politics and Ethics of Fieldwork London: Sage