Transcript Ethnographic Study and Cultural Interpretation of Schools and

EDM 6402
Qualitative Method in Educational Research
Lecture 4
Ethnographic Study
and Cultural Interpretation of
Schools and Classrooms
1
贈簿事件
教師甲實習的一班是中二，教的是中文科。有一天在班上
收集功課時，發覺其中一位學生沒有交。教師便問這位學
生為甚麼沒有功課交，學生回答沒有簿。教師便叮囑說要
買簿做功課。過幾天再上課時，教師甲問這位學生功課做
好了沒有，學生回說沒有，原因是沒有簿做功課。小息時，
教師甲便叫這學生到教員休息室去，把一本新簿給學生，
說是送給他的，好讓他有簿可以做功課。學生把簿接過來，
從中撕下了一頁，磋成一團，把紙團送進口裏，然後吞下，
學生所為。
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勸架事件
教師乙任教一班中一社會科。有一次上課時，班上一位學生
走過鄰座去打另一位同學，其他學生看得興奮，在旁叫喊。
教師乙想勸止學生打架，便想到了一個方法來。這個方法其
實是出作聖經的一個故事：有一個行淫婦人給群眾捉到耶穌
面前，要用石頭把她打死。耶穌示意說誰人覺得自己是沒有
罪的，便可以先拿石頭打那婦人。結果沒有人走前來，群眾
隨後也一個一個散去了。教師乙依著這故事便對全班說：
『那一位同學覺得自己比這位（先前被打的）同學更好，便
先動手打他罷。』結果不只一個走前來打那同學。被打的學
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Ethnography:
A Method in Search of Meanings.
• Frederick Erickson's conception: “‘Ethnography’
literally means ‘writing about the nations’; ‘graphy’
from the Greek verb ‘to write’ and ‘ethno’ from the
Greek noun ethnos, usually translated in an English
dictionary as ‘nation’ or ‘tribe’ or ‘people.’ (Erickson,
1984, p. 52)
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Ethnography:
A Method in Search of Meanings.
• George and Louise Spindler's conception:
"Ethnographers attempt to record, in an orderly
manner, how natives behave and how they explain
their behavior. And ethnography, strictly speaking,
is an orderly report of this recording. Natives are
people in situations anywhere —including children
and youth in schools —not just people who live in
remote jungles or cozy peasant villages." (Spindler
& Spindler, 1987)
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Ethnography:
A Method in Search of Meanings.
• Harry F. Wolcott's conception of ethnographic intent:
“1. Ethnography is not field technique.
2. Ethnography is not length of time in the field.
3. Ethnography is not simply good description.
4. Ethnography is not created through gaining and
maintaining rapport with subjects. …
The only requirement …placed on such research is that it
must be oriented to cultural interpretation." (Wolcott, 1987,
38)
• "The purpose of ethnographic research is to describe and
interpret cultural behavior. …Cultural interpretation not a
'requirement,' it is the essence of the ethnographic
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endeavor." (p. 43)
Ethnography:
A Method in Search of Meanings.
• Martyn Hammersley and Paul Atkinson's conception of
ethnography as a distinctive analytical mentality:
"In terms of data collection, ethnography usually involves
the research participating, overtly or covertly, in people's
daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what
happens, listening to what is said, and asking questions
through informal and formal interviews, collecting
documents and artifacts — in fact, gathering whatever
data are valuable to throw light on the issues that are the
emerging focus of inquiry." (Hammersley and Atkinson,
2007, p. 3)
• "Ethnography is not just a set of methods but rather a
particular mode of looking, listening, and thinking about
social phenomena. In short it displays a distinct analytical
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mentality." (p. 230)
Ethnography:
A Method in Search of Meanings.
• Clifford Geertz's conception of "thick description" of
meanings embedded in the "surface enigmatical" of
culture:
• "What doing ethnography is. …This, it must
immediately be said, is not a matter of methods. From
one point of view, that of the textbook, doing
ethnography is establishing rapport, selecting
informants, transcribing texts, taking genealogies,
mapping fields, keeping diary, and so on. But it is not
these things, techniques and received procedures,
that define the enterprise. What defines it is the kind
of intellectual effect it is: an elaborate venture in …
'thick description'."
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Perspectives in Cultural Interpretations of
Schools and Classroom: Preliminary Inquiry
• Plausible domains of cultural interpretations of
schooling
–
–
–
–
–
School cultures
Teachers' cultures and subcultures
Students' cultures and subcultures
Classroom cultures
School-subject cultures, …
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Perspectives in Cultural Interpretations of
Schools and Classroom: Preliminary Inquiry
• Conceptual tenets in ethnography and interpretive
sociology
– Concepts employed by interpretive social scientists or
ethnographers are fundamental different from those used in
quantitative researches. In nature science, taking the
concept of atom as an example, it is an analytical constructs
which can and must find to a large extent prefect
correspondences in the empirical world.
– Sensitising concepts: "The (interpretive) social sciences can
hope only to develop 'sensitising concepts' about the world,
approximate conceptions which are tough and always
provisional guides to a changing and complex reality." (Willis,
2000, P. xi)
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Perspectives in Cultural Interpretations of
Schools and Classroom: Preliminary Inquiry
• Conceptual tenets in ethnography and interpretive
sociology
– Focusing concepts: In symbolic interactionism, a concept is
construed as a mental or intellectual artifact, which "leads
one to focus on certain areas" in the world. (Woods, 1983, p.
5)
– Hence, concepts and perspectives employed in ethnographic
study to provide cultural interpretations in schools and
classrooms should not be taken as universally applied, allencompassing and abstract-analytical devices in enquiring
the world, but only as sensitizing and focusing devices
assisting researchers at the outset to ground their footings
on the field.
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Perspectives in Cultural Interpretations of
Schools and Classroom: Preliminary Inquiry
• Concepts of anthropological perspective in school
ethnography
– Deep structure of totem: Deep structure of artifacts
representing "the order of things" in schools
– Elementary structure of kinship and the concept of taboo:
Formal and informal role structures in schools
– Deep play of ritual: Deep play of regulated and routine
activities in schools
– Homology in cultural elements: In search of consonant
meanings in schools, classrooms and subcultures and
attempt to synthesize the debate between structuralfunctionalism and conflict theory
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Perspectives in Cultural Interpretations of
Schools and Classroom: Preliminary Inquiry
• Concepts of anthological perspective in school
ethnography
– Concepts of social phenomenology in school ethnography
– Concepts of symbolic interactionism in school ethnography
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
in Cultural Interpretations of School and
Classrooms
• The concept of the world of culture:
– According to Alfred Schutz's conception, we live our
everyday life in the world of culture. This world of culture is
"a universe of significance to us…a texture of meaning
which we have to interpret in order to find our bearing within
it and come to terms with it. This texture of meaning,
however — and this distinguishes the realm of culture from
that of nature — originates in and has been instituted by
human actions, our own and our fellow-men's,
contemporaries and predecessors.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
in Cultural Interpretations of School and
Classrooms
• The concept of the world of culture:
– All cultural objects — tools, symbols, language systems,
works of art, social institution , etc. — point back by their
very origin and meaning to the activities of human subjects.
For this reason … I cannot understand a cultural object
without referring it to the human activity from which it
originates. For example, I do not understand a tool without
knowing the purpose for which it was designed, a sign or
symbol without knowing what it stands for in the mind of the
person who uses it, an institution without understanding
what it means for the individuals who orient their behavior
with regard to its existence." (Schutz,1967a/1953, p.10-11)
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
in Cultural Interpretations of School and
Classrooms
• The concept of the world of culture:
– Accordingly, as ethnographers approach a world of culture
of a native tribe or society, they must somehow find their
way to understand this "universe of significance", "texture of
meaning", along with its tools, symbols, language systems,
social institution. That is to interpret the meanings working
behind the world of culture.
– As for school ethnographers, the world of culture that they
have to work with will then be the world of culture underlying
the everyday life in schools, staff rooms, classrooms, school
corridors, etc.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of knowledge of everyday life / commonsense knowledge:
– As we try "to find our bearing within and come to terms with"
the world of culture, we have to make use of what the social
phenomenologists called the stock of knowledge of everyday
life (Berger & Luckmann, 1967) or common-sense knowledge
(Schutz, 1967a), which serves as schemes of references in
assisting us to attribute meanings to situations, objects,
other fellow-humans in our everyday life. This stock of
common-sense knowledge are constituted and accumulated
through human actions practiced by members (both current
and precedent) of a given society.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of knowledge of everyday life / commonsense knowledge:
– However, every members of a human society are familiar
with or even take for granted this stock of common-sense
knowledge of their own culture. They can make sense with,
come to terms with, apply and practice this common-sense
knowledge in every social encounters, with every cultural
objects and fellow members of that society with ease. In
other words, this stock of knowledge of everyday life with its
applications and practices has become "invisible" in
everyday life of the world of culture.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of knowledge of everyday life / commonsense knowledge:
– Therefore, it requires the method of "phenomenological
reduction", which “presuppose the bracketing
(disconnecting) of the natural world and therewith the
carrying into effect of a complete change of attitude toward
the thesis of the world given-to-me-as-being there.” (Schutz,
1967a, Pp. 43)
– Therefore, as ethnographers approach and to conduct some
"cultural interpretations" with a "native" society, their
primary task is to come up with some "thick description" of
how natives construct and use their common-sense or takenfor-granted knowledge in their everyday-life routines.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of knowledge of everyday life / commonsense knowledge:
– Therefore, it requires the method of "phenomenological
reduction", which “presuppose the bracketing
(disconnecting) of the natural world and therewith the
carrying into effect of a complete change of attitude toward
the thesis of the world given-to-me-as-being there.” (Schutz,
1967a, Pp. 43)
– Therefore, as ethnographers approach and to conduct some
"cultural interpretations" with a "native" society, their
primary task is to come up with some "thick description" of
how natives construct and use their common-sense or takenfor-granted knowledge in their everyday-life routines.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of knowledge of everyday life / commonsense knowledge:
– For ethnographers of education, their primary task is
therefore to describe how teachers, students and school
administrators construct and use their common-sense
knowledge in encounters in classrooms, staffrooms,
conference rooms, corridors, playgrounds, …
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concepts of consciousness and intentionality: We come
to know the world of culture (i.e. constructing commonsense knowledge of the world of culture) by means of our
consciousness. "Consciousness is always intentional; it
always intents or is directed towards objects." Hence,
when we speak of consciousness, we can only speak of
"consciousness of something or others." (Berger and
Luckmann, 1967, p.34) Hence, the intentional character of
all our cogitations necessarily involves a sharp distinction
between the act of thinking …and the objects to which
these acts are referring." (Schutz, 1967b, p. 103) This
relationship between the act of thinking/consciousness
and the object of thinking/consciousness has been
characterized by social phenomenologists as
"intentionality".
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of typification: In everyday life encounters, we
have to make sense of every persons and objects we get
acquainted with. To begin with our cogitation with this
particular person or object, we have to make use of the
"typicality" in my stock of common-sense knowledge and
try to relate this "particular" with something "typical" that
I am familiar with. This act of typification is especially
essential in our initial encounter with strangers, in this
situation we have to "impute to…anonymous actors a set
of supposedly invariant motives which govern their
actions. This set is itself a construct of typical
expectations of Other's behavior and has been
investigated frequently in terms of social role or function
or institutional behaviors." (Schultz, 1967, p. 25)
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of definition of situation: In everyday life
interaction, apart from typification, another essential
interpreting device, which is commonly in use, is
definition of situation. We must come to terms with
our partners what is the occasion here and now. In
other words, we must typify the encounter with some
culturally agreeable, acceptable or even
institutionalized definition. Otherwise, participants in
the encounter may not be able to know how to act in
and on the situation.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concepts of objectivation of subjectivity: To retain
and sustain the subjective meanings assigned to
situations, physical objects and other fellow humans,
human beings have developed systems of signs and
expressions to make their subjectivity objective.
Languages in both spoken and written forms are one
of the major objectivation tools used in human
cultures. With these systems of signs, human
subjectivities can then be communicated, shared and
exchanged across times and spaces. This act of
objectivation of meaning (signified) by means of sign
(signifier) has been characterized by social
phenomenologists as process of signification.
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(Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.50)
Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concepts of reciprocity of perspectives and
intersubjectivity: By making use of systems of signs
and expressions, a person can not only be able to
communicate her subjective interpretations of the
situation with her partner, but she can also across
examine the typificality that her partner has imputed
to her. As a result, partners in a human interaction
may then arrive at a consensus on their perspectives
regarding their encounter. This has been
characterized by social phenomenologists as
reciprocity of perspectives or intersubjectivity.
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Concept of institutionalization: As a human
interaction repeats itself on regular basis, the
encounter, with its subjective definition, typification,
objectivation and reciprocity, will become
habitualized. Berger and Luckmann indicate that
"institutionalization occurs whenever there is a
reciprocal typification of habitaulized actions by
types of actors. Put differently, any such typification
is an institution. … The typifications of habitualized
actions that constitute institutions are always shared
ones. They are available to all members of the
particular social group in question, and institution
itself typifies individual actors as well individual
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actions." (Berger & Luckmann, 1967, p. 72)
Social Phenomenological Perspectives
• Legitimation: “Legitimation as a process is best
described as ‘second-order’ objectiviation of
meaning. Legitimation produces new meanings that
serve to integrate the meanings already attached to
disparate institutional process.” (Berger & Luckmann,
1967, p. 110) Legitimation can be differentiated into
process of explanation and justification.
– Cognitive explanation: “Legitimation ‘explains’ the
institutional order by ascribing cognitive validity to its
objectified meanings.” (p. 111)
– Normative justification: “Legitimation justifies the
institutional order by giving normative dignity to its practical
imperatives.” (p. 111)
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Social Phenomenological Perspectives
Thomas Luckmann
(1927-
Peter Berger
(192929
The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Definition of situations in school: School is an
environment or context heavily implicated with
meanings and definitions
– Most of the areas in a school premises are functionally
defined and physically arranged to serve the interest at
hand of their makers. Even within the context of a
classroom both the physical and social scenes are
carefully "set" by its teacher.
– By applying Goffman's concept of dramatization, Peter
Wood suggests that the environment of a school can
be subjectively demarcated into front and back regions
by its users.
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The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Definition of situations in school: School is an
environment or context heavily implicated with
meanings and definitions
– Definition of situation in classroom: though most of the
areas in them have been institutionally or
organizationally pre-defined, such as morning
assembly, lesson, recess, lunch time, extra- curricular
activities. However, in reality any institutionalized
situations will not be accepted as given by its users,
especially the students. The definition of each situation,
such as a lesson, will be interpreted anew and open to
negotiation and subject to agreement; otherwise a
lesson simply will not "happen."
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The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Roles and statuses in school
– Concept of role: In schools organization most of the
roles have supposedly been prescribed by the school
institution, such as subject teachers, students, school
head, panel chairperson, etc. The role expectations, in
forms of performances of tasks, have all been typified
institutionally. However, in the reality of world culture,
these networks of role expectations are open to
interpretations and negotiations by role partners.
32
The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Roles and statuses in school
– Concept of status: In school interactions, participant will
scrutinized and evaluated each others' role performances.
Based on these evaluations, participants will "size up" each
others and accordingly statuses will be assigned and/or
achieved among participants. Hence, in concrete human
interactions, such as classroom interactions, institutionally
ascribed statuses will never be accepted in face value, they
have to be achieved in actual performances. In classroom
interaction, though teachers are ascribed with the
institutional role to conduct teaching, nevertheless it has
been well evidenced in classroom interaction studies that
teachers' status and authority will not be accepted by
students on face value. Teachers have to achieve the status
by demonstrating their competence in teaching, classroom
management and so on. And students will try hard in
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sussing and sizing up new teachers.
The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Divided cultures in schools
– The culture of the tribal chiefs in schools (Walcott,
1984)
– Teacher's culture and Woods' ethnography of
staffroom (Woods, 1979)
– Students' culture and typology of subcultures of
students (Woods, 1979)
34
35
36
The Divided School:
Ethnographic Study of Schools
• Strategies of teachers and students
– Teachers' survival strategies (Woods, 1979)
– Students' strategies of compliance and resistance (Woods,
1979)
– Ethnography of initial encounter in classroom (Ball, 1984;
Beynon, 1984; Wragg & Wood, 1984)
– Ethnography of cultural breakdown in classroom —
confrontation (Pik, 1987; Laslett & Smith, 1987; Pollard, 1989)
37
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
George Herbert Mead
(1863-1931)
Herbert Blumer
(1900-1987)
Chicago School of Social Ethnography
38
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• The self: According to symbolic interactionism, the
self is defined “as a process, and not a structure.”
(Blumer, 1969, p. 62) It is a self-interacting and selfreflexive process, in which “human being can
designate to himself  his wants, his goals, objects
around him, the presence of others, their actions,
their expected actions, or whatnot. Through further
interaction with himself, he may judge, analyze, and
evaluate the things he has designated to himself. And
by continuing to interact with himself he may plan
and organize his action with regard to what he has
designated and evaluated.” (ibid)
39
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• The act: In order to cope with the world and more
importantly to maintain the status quo of the self,
“the human being must forge or piece together a line
of actions…to map out a prospective line of behavior,
note and interpret the actions of others, size up his
situation, check himself at this and that point, figure
out what to do at another point…” (p.64)
40
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• Social interaction: Most of the social interactions
involve mutual interpretations and definitions
between interacting partners. It is a formative and
ongoing process through which “participants fit their
own acts to the onging acts of one another and guide
other in doing so” (p.66). This conception resonates
with social phenomenologist's concept of reciprocity
of perspectives.
41
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• The objects: “Human beings live in a world or
environment of objects, and their activities are
formed around objects. But to symbolic interactionist,
these "objects are human constructs and not selfexisting entities with intrinsic natures. Their nature is
dependent on the orientation and action of people
toward them. …In short, objects consist of whatever
people indicate or refer to." (p.68)
42
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• The objects: This basic canon of symbolic
interactionism implies the followings:
– "The nature of an object is constituted by the meaning it has
for the person or persons for whom it is an object."
– "This meaning is not intrinsic to the object but arises from
how the person is initially to act toward it." (p. 68-69) It
follows that the same object will vary in its meaning in
accordance with the persons who act toward it, in social
phenomenologists' terminology, the meanings of an object
will vary with the typification designated by its users.
– "Objects ― all objects are social products in that they are
formed and transformed by the defining process that takes
place in social interaction." (p.69)
– "People are prepared or set to act toward objects on the
43
basis of the meaning of the objects for them." (ibid)
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• The objects:
– "One can organize one's action toward it instead of
responding immediately to it; one can inspect the object,
think about it , work out a plan of action towards it, or decide
whether or not to act towards it." (ibid)
– According, "human being are seen a living in a world of
meaningful objects." (ibid) This world of meaningful objects
that symbolic interactionists advocate is in congruence with
social phenomenologists conception of "the world of
culture" and the thesis of "the social construction of reality."
– "People are not locked to their objects, they may check
action towards objects and indeed work out new lines of
conduct towards them. This condition introduces into human
group life an indigenous source of transformation." (p.69-70)
44
Symbolic Interactionists' Perspective in
Cultural Interpretations of Schooling
• Joint action: “It refers to the large collective form of
action that is constituted by the fitting together of the
line of behavior of the separate participants. …Joint
actions range from a simple collaboration of two
individuals to a complex alignment of the acts of
huge organizations or institutions.” (p.70) The
concept corresponds neatly with Berger and
Luckmann's conception of institutionalization.
45
Common Culture as Symbolic Work of
Symbolic Creativity
• Paul Willis' approach to cultural study
– Life and culture as art: Willis construes "art as living, not
textual thing. …Art as an elegant and compressed practice of
meaning-making is a defining and irreducible quality at the
heart of everyday human practices and interactions. It is at
the centre of the commonplace human uses of objects …
producing and investing meaningfulness in our relations
with others and with the objects and materials around us. It
is the combination of these practices with their locating
relations and materials that produces culture and cultural
forms which are the stock in trade of ethnographic analysis,
for example school culture, subcultures, occupational and
shop-floor cultures or individual cultural formation." (Willis,
2000, p. 3-4)
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Common Culture as Symbolic Work of
Symbolic Creativity
• Paul Willis' approach to cultural study
– The concept of symbolic work: By accepting cultures as a
form of art of meaning-making in everyday life, Willis
therefore suggests that symbolic work is a necessary
constituent in everyday life. Just as the work or labour we
invested into the world of nature to produce material
resources to sustain our biological lives, we also invest
substantial amount of our labour and work to create and
designate meanings and meaningfulness to physical objects,
fellow-beings and social relations in order to construct and
maintain our cultural lives. Accordingly, ethnographic study
as endeavor of cultural interpretation is by definition a study
of the symbolic work organized, constituted and practiced
within a "native" society.
47
Common Culture as Symbolic Work of
Symbolic Creativity
• Paul Willis' approach to cultural study
– Forms and products of symbolic work: (Willis, 1990, p. 11)
• Language as practice and symbolic resource: Language (both
spoken and written) is the primary instrument that we employ to
create, store and disseminate meanings. It is also the
foundation for us to build reciprocity of perspectives and
coordination in social actions with our fellow humans.
• The body as practice and symbolic resource: "The body is a site
of somatic knowledge as well as a set of sign and symbols. It is
the source of productive and communicative activity ― signing,
symbolizing, feeling."
48
Common Culture as Symbolic Work of
Symbolic Creativity
• Paul Willis' approach to cultural study
– Forms and products of symbolic work: (Willis, 1990, p. 11)
• Social "drama" as practice of symbolic work: "Communication
is achieved through roles, rituals and performances that we
produced with others. Dramaturgical components of the
symbolic include a variety of non-verbal communications, as
well as sensuous cultural practices and communal solidarities.
These include dancing, singing, joke-making, story-telling in
dynamic setting and through performance."
• Symbolic creativity: "Language, the body, dramatic forms are, in
a way, both raw material and tools. Symbolic creativity is more
fully the practices, the making ― or their essence, what all
practices have in common, what drives them. This is the
production of new (however small the shift) meanings
intrinsically attached to feeling, to energy, to excitement and
psychic movement." (p. 11)
49
Common Culture as Symbolic Work of
Symbolic Creativity
• Willis' ethnography of subcultures
– Profane cultures of the motor-bike boys and the hippies in
the early 1970s (Willis, 1978)
– The anti-school culture and working-class culture of the
'lads' in the 1970s (Willis, 1977)
– Common culture of youths in the 1980s. (Willis, 1990)
• Symbolic creativity in culture media, e.g. television, magazines,
computers, …
• Symbolic creativity in music, e.g. selecting, consuming and
identifying with music styles
• Symbolic creativity and style and fashion, e.g. hairstyle,
dressing, overall styles "from teddy boys and the mods, to the
skins to punks," (Willis, 1990, p. 87)
• Symbolic creativity and everyday life, e.g. pub cultures, sports,
games, sex and romances,
50
Cultural system
Durée
Durée
Sign systems
Signs
Objectifications
Externalizations
Express
Acts
Intentionality
Express
Movements
Intentionality
51
Phenomenological conceptual framework of social meaning
Durée
LESSON
Enactment of Classroom Culture
Cognitive
Explanation
Durée
Cognitive
Explanation
Institutionalization
Legitimation
Legitimation
Normative
Justification
Habitualization
Externalizing and objectifying
Acts (strategies)
Normative
Justification
Externalizing and objectifying
Acts (strategies)
Construction of reciprocity and intersubjectivity through Negotiations
Intentionality at hand
Intentionality at hand
Typification of partners
Typification of partners
Definition of situation
Definition of situation
Role – status - career
Role – status - career
The self
as interactive
meaning-making
Intentionality
process with oneself
The self
Intentionality
as interactive meaning-making
process with oneself
World of culture of students
World of culture of Teachers 52
Processes of Ethnographic Study:
• The grounded theory method
• Michael Agar’s Ethnographic Understanding
• Stephen Ball’s technical trajectories in ethnographic
fieldwork in educational setting
53
Lecture 3
Ethnographic Study
and Cultural Interpretation of Schools and Classrooms
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