Transcript Chapter 6 Powerpoint Toxicology

Chapter 6
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
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Introduction
Toxicologists:
• detect and identify drugs and poisons in body
fluids, tissues, and organs
• identify a drug overdose or monitor the intake of
drugs
• work in crime laboratories, medical examiners’
offices, hospital laboratories and health facilities
• measure the amount of alcohol or other abused
drugs in the body for violations of criminal law
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Role of Toxicologist
• The toxicologist uses general screening procedures
with the hope of narrowing thousands of
possibilities to one, if the victim does not present
any symptoms.
• A drug analyst may have gram or milligram
quantities to work with, but the toxicologist
must work with nanogram or microgram
amounts
➡ Due to drugs being distributed throughout
the body
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Role of Toxicologist
• Must be prepared to
assess the toxicity of the
drug or poison.
• Toxicity - The degree to
which a substance (a
toxin or poison) can
harm humans or
animals.
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Collection and Preservation of
Toxicological Evidence
• In the deceased, the following may be
collected:
 blood
organ tissue
vitreous humor (liquid in the eye)
gastric contents
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Collection of Toxicological Evidence
• In living victims blood and urine are
collected.
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Techniques Used in Toxicology
• Toxicologists must detect, isolate and
identify a toxic substance.
• Drug extraction is based on the acidity and
basicity of drugs.
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Techniques Used in Toxicology
Acids and Bases
• An acid a compound that donates H+ ion to
another compound
- Example: acetic acid CH3COO-H
• A base is a compound capable of accepting
a hydrogen ion
- Example: NH3
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Techniques Used in Toxicology
• Water is neutral with a pH of 7
• A drug can be recovered by changing the
pH of water
 Acidic drugs are extracted from an
acidified water solution (pH < 7)
 Basic drugs are extracted from a basic
water solution (pH > 7)
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Over-the-Counter Drugs
• Can cause accidental poisoning or even
death
• OTC drugs include:
- alcohol
- aspirin
- antacids - other pain relievers
- nicotine
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OTC Drugs
• Drugs can be detected in overdosed
victims by acidified and basic solutions.
A color change may be observed
Carbon dioxide gas may also be
produced
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Alcohol Statistics
• Ethyl alcohol is the most heavily abused
drug in Western countries.
• 40% of all traffic deaths in the US, are
alcohol related.
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Toxicology of Alcohol
• Alcohol effects the central
nervous system, particularly
the functions of the brain.
• The analysis of alcohol
demonstrates:
 A second objective of forensic
toxicology—to determine
influence of drugs on human
behavior.
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Metabolism of Alcohol
• Metabolism – the transformation of a
chemical to other chemicals to aid in its
elimination from the body
• Metabolism consists of three steps:
Absorption
Distribution
Elimination
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Metabolism of Alcohol
• Alcohol appears in the blood within minutes after
it has been taken by mouth
• Slowly increases in concentration while it is being
absorbed from the stomach and the small intestine
into the bloodstream.
• Absorption – passage of alcohol across the wall
of the stomach and small intestine into the
bloodstream
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Question
• Name four factors that determine the rate
at which alcohol is absorbed into the
bloodstream.
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Metabolism of Alcohol
• Factors such as time taken to consume the drink, the
alcohol content, the amount consumed, and food
present in the stomach determine the rate at which
alcohol is absorbed.
• As the alcohol is circulated by the bloodstream, the
body begins to eliminate it.
• Alcohol is eliminated by two mechanisms
- oxidation
- excretion
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Metabolism of Alcohol
• Oxidation – the combination of oxygen with
other substances to produce new products
• Excretion – elimination of alcohol from the
body in an unchanged state; alcohol is
normally excreted in breath, urine and
perspiration.
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Alcohol Levels
• Is measured as the quantity of alcohol present
in the blood (BAC) or the alcohol content in
the breath
• The amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath is
directly proportional to the alcohol
concentration in the blood
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXjANz9r5F0
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BAC: Blood Alcohol Content
• Expressed as percent weight
per volume of blood
• Legal limit in all states is 0.08
percent
• The average elimination or
“burn-off” rate of alcohol is about
0.015 percent w/v per hour
Parameters influencing BAC:
• Body weight
• Alcohol content
• Number of beverages consumed
• Time since consumption
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BAC Calculation
BAC = Noz x % alcohol x 0.075 - ( 0.015 x hr drinking)
body weight
Video Example
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Metabolism of Alcohol
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Alcohol & Circulatory System
• Humans have a closed circulatory system
consisting of a heart, arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
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Alcohol & Circulatory System
• Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and
small intestines into the blood stream.
• Alcohol is carried to the liver where the process
of its destruction starts.
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Alcohol & Circulatory System
• Blood, carrying alcohol, moves to the heart and
is pumped to the lungs.
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Alcohol & Circulatory System
• In the lungs, CO2 and alcohol leave the blood
and O2 enters the blood in the air sacs known as
alveoli.
• Then CO2 and alcohol are exhaled during
breathing.
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Testing for Intoxication
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1. Breath Testers – Light Absorption Device
• Breath testers are designed to
analyze alveolar breath.
• The captured breath is
exposed to infrared light.
• The infrared light source
allows the instrument to
measure the (BAC) in the
captured breath.
• Other breath testing devices
use fuel cells.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
rvVzlg26bCM
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2. Field Testing
• Police officers use field sobriety tests to:
 estimate a motorist’s degree of physical
impairment by alcohol
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Field Testing
Three major field tests:
1.Horizontal gaze nystagmus test – (involuntary
jerking of the eye)
2.Walk and turn
3.One-leg stand
• All considered reliable and effective
psychophysical tests.
•Video1
•Video 2
•Video 3
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Field Testing
• A portable, handheld,
roadside breath tester
can be used to determine
a preliminary BAC.
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3. Collection of Blood
• A confirmation blood test is
always performed
• Blood must always be drawn under
controlled conditions by qualified
personnel.
• A nonalcoholic disinfectant must be
applied before the suspect is stuck
with a sterile needle.
• The blood is collected in a
glass tube that contains
anticoagulant/preservative and
is refrigerated.
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Collection and Preservation of Blood
Anticoagulant - a substance that prevents clotting of blood
Preservative – stops the growth of microorganisms in blood
Blood clot
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3. The Analysis of Blood for Alcohol
• A confirmation blood test is always performed
• 3. Gas chromatography is used to determine
blood alcohol levels.
• The resultant alcohol peak is compared to ones
obtained with known blood-alcohol standards
• The alcohol level can be calculated.
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Techniques Used in Toxicology
• Once a drug has been extracted, a toxicologist
will take a 2-step approach:
1. Screening Test
- A large number of drug samples can be
analyzed in a short time
2. Confirmation Test
- Results from screening test are verified
with confirmation tests
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Techniques used in Toxicology
1. Screening Tests (3 widely used)
 Thin-layer chromatography
 Gas chromatography
 Immunoassay
 Based on specific drug antibody reactions
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2. Confirmation Tests
• Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
(test of choice)
• Infrared Spectrophotometry
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Amy
Winehouse
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Question
Using iPad, search for symptoms of
alcohol poisoning, and what causes death?
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Collecting Samples for Drug Tests
1. Blood Tests
2. Urine Tests
3. Hair Testing
•
Drugs become permanently entrapped in hair’s
hardening protein structure
•
As hair grows, the drug’s location on hair shaft
becomes a time marker for drug intake
•
Drug use can be dated back to a period of weeks, months, or
even years, depending on hair’s length
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Detecting Nondrug Poisons
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Arsenic has been called “The King of Poisons”,
for its discreetness and potency – it was virtually
undetectable, so it was very often used either as a
murder weapon or as a mystery story element. But
that’s until the Marsh test came and signaled the
presence of this poison in water, food and the like.
However, this king of poisons has taken many
famous lives: Napoleon Bonaparte and Simon
Bolivar to name a few. On another note, arsenic,
like belladonna, was used by the Victorians for
cosmetic reasons. A couple of drops of the stuff
made a woman’s complexion white and pale.
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Cyanide seems to be extremely popular
(spies use cyanide pills to kill themselves when
caught) and there are plenty of reasons for this. Firstly,
it is found in a great variety of substances like
almonds, apple seeds, apricot kernel, tobacco smoke,
insecticides, and pesticides. Murder in this case can be
blamed on a household accident, such as ingestion of
pesticide – a fatal dose of cyanide for humans is 1.5
mg per kilogram of body weight. Secondly, it’s a rapid
killer: depending on the dose, death occurs within 1 to
15 minutes. Hydrogen cyanide gas was used by Nazi
Germany for mass murders in gas chambers during the
Holocaust.
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The deadliest snake is a Belcher's Sea-snake. It takes
only 0.02 milligrams of venom to kill a person. They
usually injects around 35 milligrams and that can kill
around 15,000 people with one bite. Death can
happen within 2 minutes.
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An estimated 12,000 people die annually from
Cobra bites in India. It is possible that under
the right conditions a person could die from a
cobra bite in 30 minutes
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• http://modernsurvivalblog.com/survivalskills/the-4-deadly-poisonous-snakes-inamerica/
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Carbon Monoxide
• Carbon monoxide poisoning can happen
when fires, stoves, heaters or ovens are
used in rooms, huts which do not have
proper ventilation to let the gas out.
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Incidence
• CO is leading cause of poisoning deaths in
industrialized countries.
• CO may be responsible for half of all
poisonings worldwide.
• ~5,000–6,000 people die annually in the
United States as a result of CO poisoning.
• ~40,000–50,000 emergency department
visits annually result from CO poisoning.
Source: Hampson NB. Trends in the incidence of
carbon monoxide poisoning in the United States. Am J
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What Is Carbon Monoxide?
• CO is a compound
of Carbon and
Oxygen
• One atom carbon to one
atom oxygen
• Colorless
• Odorless
• Tasteless
• POISONOUS Gas
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Where Does It Come From?
• CO is Produced by the
Incomplete Combustion of
Various Fuels,
• Including:
 Coal
 Wood
 Oil
 Natural Gas
 Charcoal
 Kerosene
Note production of CO from
the fire on right
 Propane
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Common Causes of
Incomplete Combustion
• Smoldering Fires
• Burning Wet Wood
• Burning Green
Wood
• Lack of O2 During
Combustion
• Malfunctioning
Appliances
• Malfunctioning
Exhaust Systems
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Common Sources of
Carbon Monoxide Pollution
WATER HEATERS &
FURNACES
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FIREPLACES
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Sources (Cont.)
VEHICLE EXHAUST
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SMOKING INDOORS
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The Hidden Dangers of CO
• Carbon Monoxide Poisoning is the
Most Common Exposure Poisoning in
the United States
• Carbon Monoxide is Not Easily
Recognized Because the Signs and
Symptoms Are Similar to Those of
Other Illness
• Causes Sudden Illness and Death
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Carbon Monoxide in the Body
• Normally oxygen binds to
hemoglobin in red blood cells.
• When CO enters the body:
- it binds to hemoglobin
• If too much CO is binding to
hemoglobin, then oxygen
cannot bind, and cannot be
carried to tissues.
Hemoglobin
• Death by asphyxiation
occurs.
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Prevent Accidental CO Poisoning
List of DO’s
DETECTORS
• DO- Install a Batteryoperated CO Detector
In Your Home
UNITS WITH DIGITAL
READOUT BETTER THAN
UNITS WITHOUT
– check or replace the
battery when you
change the time on
your clocks each
spring and fall
• If the Detector Sounds
Leave Your Home
Immediately and Call
911.
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Detecting Nondrug Poisons
• Heavy metals
 Once commonly encountered in criminal cases
of murder
 They include:
Video1
- Arsenic
- Bismuth
Video2
- Antimony
- Mercury
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Detecting Heavy Metals
• To detect heavy metals:
1. Reinsch test
• The suspected body fluid containing sample
will be dissolved in hydrochloric acid and a
copper strip is inserted
• Appearance of silver or dark coating on
copper indicates presence of heavy metal
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Significance of Toxicological Findings
• For many drugs, blood concentration levels are
readily determined and can be used to estimate the
pharmacological effects on the individual.
• Urine is a poor indicator of how extensively an
individual’s behavior is influenced by the drug.
 Drugs can be found in the urine one to three days
after being taken
 Urine is still valuable
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Alcohol and Law
• To prevent a person’s refusal to take a test for
alcohol consumption, the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration recommended an
“implied consent” law.
• Adopted by all states by 1973, this law states
that the operation of a motor vehicle on a public
highway automatically carries with it the
stipulation that a driver will submit for a test for
alcohol intoxication if requested or be subject to
loss of the license.
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Schmerber v. California
• Schmerber v. California
 Issue of unreasonable search and seizure by
police
 Police seized blood sample from Schmerber
without a search warrant
 The Court said the blood was taken in a
justly, medical manner
• Process of collecting evidence is judged only on
case-by-case basis.
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End of Chapter 6
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