Transcript drugs - Nutley Public Schools

Chapter 5
DRUGS
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-1
Introduction
• A natural or synthetic substance that produces
physiological or psychological effects in
humans or other animals.
• Drugs
Sustain and prolong life
Escape from reality
Means of ending life
75% of all evidence being
processed in crime labs is
related to illegal drugs
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-2
DEA – NJ Drug Statistics
NJ State Facts
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(http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/state_factsheets/newjersey.html)
Population: 8,717,925
State Prison Population: 26,757
Probation Population: 143,315
Violent Crime Rate National Ranking: 26
2010 Federal Drug Seizures
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Cocaine: 900.78 kg
Heroin: 140.21 kg
Methamphetamine: 47.94 kg/26 DU
Marijuana: 2,887.80kg
Hashish: 57.55 kg.
MDMA: 3,790 DU
Meth Lab Incidents: 3 (DEA, state, and local)
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-3
DEPENDENCE
Two types of drug dependence
Physical and Psychological:
Psychological Dependence – Need drug to
maintain emotional well-being
Physical Dependence – Must maintain a
regular schedule of intake or suffer
physiological effects
High potential: Alcohol, Heroin, Amphetamines,
Barbiturates, Cocaine
Low potential: Marijuana, Codeine
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-4
Narcotics
• Narcotic drugs are analgesics,
meaning they relieve pain by
a depressing action on the
central nervous system. This
effects functions such as blood
pressure, pulse rate and
breathing rate.
• The regular use of a narcotic
drug will lead to physical
dependence.
• The most common source for
narcotic drugs is opium,
extracted from poppies.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-5
Opiates
• Morphine is extracted
from opium and is used
to make heroin.
• Heroin produces a
“high” that is
accompanied by
drowsiness and a sense
of well-being that
generally last for three to
four hours.
• Codeine is usually
prepared synthetically
from morphine.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-6
Other Opiates
• OxyContin, with the active
ingredient oxycodone, is a
synthetic compound that has
the same effects on the body
as do opium narcotics.
• OxyContin is prescribed to a
million patients for treatment
of severe and chronic pain
caused by terminal cancer
and other end-stage diseases.
• Methadone is another wellknown synthetic opiate used
to lessen the physical effects
of heroin withdrawal.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-7
Hallucinogens
• Another class of drugs is
hallucinogens. The most wellknown member of this class is
marijuana.
• Hallucinogens cause severe
changes in normal thought
processes, perceptions, and
moods.
• Marijuana is the most
controversial drug in this
class because its long-term
effects on health are still
largely unknown.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-8
Marijuana
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FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
Marijuana is derived from the
plant Cannabis sativa.
The active chemical substance in
marijuana is known as
tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC.
The THC content of Cannabis
generally declines with the
highest level in plant resin,
flowers, leaves and the smallest
level in the stem, roots or seeds.
Marijuana does not cause
physical dependency, but health
risks are not well known and
heavy, long-term use is believed
to cause the most harm.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Other Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens include LSD,
mescaline, PCP, psilocybin,
and MDMA (Ecstasy).
• LSD is synthesized from
lysergic acid, and can cause
hallucinations that can last
for 12 hours.
• During the Middle Ages,
consuming moldy grain that
was contaminated with Ergot
caused hallucinations.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
• PCP gives inflated
feelings of strength and
invincibility, then
violence, depression and
suicide.
• Phencyclidine, or PCP, is
most often produced in
illegal “laboratories”.
• Phencyclidine is often
mixed with other drugs,
such as LSD, or
amphetamine, and is
sold as a powder (“angel
dust”), capsule, or tablet.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Depressants
• Depressants are another class
of drugs.
• Depressants are substances
used to depress the functions
of the central nervous system.
• Depressants calm irritability
and anxiety and may induce
sleep.
• Examples: (ingested) alcohol,
barbiturates, tranquilizers,
(sniffed) airplane glue, model
cement, or aerosol gas
propellants such as nitrou
oxide and freon.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-11
Depressants
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FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) enters the
bloodstream and quickly travels
to the brain, where it suppresses
control of thought processes and
muscle coordination.
Barbiturates, (downers) taken
orally, create a feeling of wellbeing, relax the body, and induce
sleep.
Tranquilizers, differ from
barbiturates by producing
tranquil feelings without
impairment of high-skilled brain
functions or inducing sleep.
Sniffing compounds has
immediate effects such as
exhilaration, but impairs
judgment and may cause liver,
heart, and brain damage, or even
death.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Stimulants
• This drug classification
of stimulants includes
amphetamines,
sometimes known as
“uppers” or “speed,”
and cocaine, which in its
free-base form is known
as crack.
• Stimulants are
substances taken to
increase alertness or
activity, followed by a
decrease in fatigue and a
loss of appetite.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-13
Stimulants
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FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
Amphetamine and
methamphetamine, often injected
intravenously, cause an initial
“rush”.
This is followed by a period of
exhaustion and a prolonged
period of depression.
Cocaine, extracted from the
leaves of the coca plant, increases
alertness and energy, and
suppresses hunger, fatigue.
Crack is cocaine mixed with
baking soda and water, then
heated.
Crack is often smoked in glass
pipes, and like cocaine stimulates
the brain to produce endorphins.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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Club Drugs
• The term club drugs refers to
synthetic drugs that are used
at nightclubs and bars.
• Club drugs: MDMA
(Ecstasy), GHB (gamma
hydroxybutyrate), Rohypnol
(“Roofies”), ketamine, and
methamphetamine.
• GHB and Rohypnol are
central nervous system
depressants that are often
connected with drugfacilitated sexual assault,
rape, and robbery.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-15
Club Drugs
• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, also known as
MDMA or Ecstasy, is a synthetic mind-altering drug
that exhibits many hallucinogenic and amphetaminelike effects.
• Ecstasy enhances self-awareness and decreases
inhibitions, however, seizures, muscle breakdown,
stroke, kidney failure, and cardiovascular system
failure often accompany chronic abuse.
• Ketamine is primarily used as a veterinary animal
anesthetic that in humans causes euphoria and
hallucinations.
• Ketamine can also cause impaired motor functions,
high blood pressure, amnesia, and mild respiratory
depression.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-16
Anabolic Steroids
• Synthetic compounds that are
chemically related to the male
sex hormone testosterone.
• Anabolic steroids are often
abused by individuals who
are interested in rapid
increases in muscle growth.
• Side effects include
unpredictable effects on mood
and personality, depression,
diminished sex drive, halting
bone growth, and liver
cancer.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-17
Drug-Control Laws
• The U.S. federal law known as the Controlled
Substances Act will serve to illustrate a legal
drug-classification system created to prevent
and control drug abuse.
• This federal law establishes five schedules of
classification for controlled dangerous
substances based on the drug’s
– potential for abuse
– potential for physical and psychological dependence
– medical use/value
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-18
Schedules of Classification
• Schedule I –
drugs have a high potential for abuse
and have no currently accepted
medical use such as heroin,
marijuana, methaqualone, and LSD.
• Schedule II –
drugs have a high potential for abuse
and have medical use with severe
restrictions such as cocaine, PCP, and
most amphetamine and barbiturate
prescriptions.
• Schedule III –
Schedule IV –
drugs have a low potential for abuse
and have a current medical use such
as darvon, phenobarbital, and some
tranquilizers such as diazepam
(valium) and chlordiazepoxide
(librium).
• Schedule V –
drugs must show low abuse potential
and have medical use such as opiate
drug mixtures that contain
nonnarcotic medicinal ingredients.
drugs have less potential for abuse
and a currently accepted medical use
such as all barbiturate prescriptions
not covered under Schedule II, such
as codeine and anabolic steroids.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-19
Preliminary Analysis
• Unknown compounds are subjected to screening tests in
the field which can reduce the possible chemical(s) to a
small and manageable number.
• Suspect material is subjected to a series of different color
tests that will produce characteristic colors for the more
common illicit drugs.
• Microcrystalline tests can also be used to identify specific
drug substances by studying the size and shape of crystals
formed when the drug is mixed with specific reagents
(such as water, alcohol, acetone).
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-20
Unknown Compound Color Tests
• Marquis – liquid reagent turns purple when positive
for opium-based drugs (heroin, morphine) and orangebrown when positive for amphetamines and
methamphetamines.
• Dillie-Koppanyl – reagent turns violet-blue when
positive for barbiturates
• Duqenois-Levine – series of chemicals to test for
marijuana
• Van Urk – (not used in the field) tests for LSD
• Scott – three solution test for the presence of cocaine.
Positive color sequence is blue-pink-blue.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-21
Confirmation Determination
• Forensic chemists will employ a specific test to
identify a drug substance to the exclusion of all
other known chemical substances.
• Typically infrared spectrophotometry or gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry is used to
specifically identify a drug substance.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-22
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Analytical techniques must give either a
qualitative or a quantitative result.
Qualitative gives only the identity of the
suspect material.
Quantitative gives the percent
composition of the different elements in a
mixture.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-23
Chromatography
Chromatography is a means of
separating and identifying the
components of a mixture.
• Theory of chromatography is
that chemical substances
partially escape into the
surrounding environment
when dissolved in a liquid or
when absorbed on a solid
surface.
• Materials that have a
preference for the moving
phase will slowly pull ahead
and separate from those
substances that prefer to
remain in the stationary
phase.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-24
TLC
Solid stationary phase (usually
coated onto a glass plate) and a
mobile liquid phase to separate
the components of the mixture.
• The liquid will move up the
plate by capillary action.
• The sample travels between
the stationary phase (plate)
and the moving liquid phase.
• Most compounds are colorless
so results must be viewed by
placing the plates under UV
light or spraying the plate
with a chemical reagent.
• The distance a spot travels up
a thin-layer plate can be
measured as a numerical
value or the Rf value.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-25
Calculating Rf Values
The distance moved by a pigment
is compared to the distance
moved by the solvent front. We
call this relationship the retention
time or Rf value and define it as
follows:
Rf = Distance moved by the pigment
Distance from pigment origin to
solvent front
Paper chromatography can be
used to identify substances both
qualitatively (by color) and
quantitatively by its characteristic
Rf value.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-26
Gas Chromatography
In GC, the moving phase is
actually a gas called the
carrier gas, which flows
through a column.
• The stationary phase is a thin
film of liquid contained within
the column.
• After a mixture has traversed
the length of the column, it
will become separated into its
components.
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FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
Chromatogram: The printed record
of the separation.
Retention Time: The time required
for a component to come out of a GC
column.
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-27
Marijuana Testing
The U.S. Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) regulates
marijuana under the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA).
substances. Within this CSA
framework, marijuana is placed
into Schedule 1. Many testing
methods are used for detecting
THC in saliva: radio
immunoassay (RIA) method, gas
chromatography with electron
capture detection (GC-ECD),
and liquid chromatography with
electrochemical detection.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) is the
preferred method for analysis screening and confirmation in one
step.3 GC/MS is extremely selective
and sensitive, enabling routine
analysis of THC in saliva at the low
levels required by most regulatory
bodies.
Testing for prosecution is actively
pursued EVERYDAY.
REMEMBER: Marijuana is still
considered a Schedule I drug by
the U.S. Government - federal
laws trump state or local laws.
Source: Forensic Magazine 23-29 10-17-2010
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-28
Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry
measures the quantity of
radiation that a
particular material
absorbs as a function of
wavelength and
frequency.
• Beer’s Law:
The quantity of light
absorbed at any
frequency is directly
proportional to the
concentration of the
absorbing substance.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-29
UVand IR Spectrophotometry
• Most forensic laboratories use
UV and IR
spectrophotometers to
identify chemical compounds.
• The UV spectrum is simple
enough to determine the
general identity of an
unknown substance.
• The IR spectrum is much
more exact; each IR spectrum
is equivalent to a
“fingerprint” of that
substance.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-30
The Spectrophotometer
• Measures the light absorption
spectrum of a chemical
substance.
• The components of a
spectrophotometer are:
•
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
– A radiation source
– A monochromator or
frequency selector
– A sample holder
– A detector to convert
electromagnetic radiation
into an electrical signal
– A recorder to produce a
record of the signal
The light source can be the
visible, ultraviolet (UV) or
infrared (IR)
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©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-31
Mass Spectrometry
• In the mass spectrometer, a
beam of high-energy electrons
collide with a sample,
producing positively charged
ions.
• These positive ions almost
instantaneously decompose
into numerous fragments,
which are separated
according to their masses.
• The unique feature of mass
spectrometry is that under
carefully controlled
conditions, no two substances
produce the same fragment
pattern.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-32
GC and Mass
• The GC column and the mass
spectrometer can be connected.
• The separation of a mixture’s components
is first accomplished by the GC.
• Then, fragmentation of each separated
component by high-energy electrons in the
mass spectrometer, will produce a distinct
pattern, or a “fingerprint” of the sample
being examined.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-33
Collection and Preservation
• The evidence must be properly packaged and
labeled for the laboratory.
• Common sense is the best guide, the package
must prevent the loss of the sample contents
and/or cross-contamination with another sample.
• The original container in which the drug was
seized will be suffcient.
• All samples must be marked with information
that will ensure identification in the future and
establish the chain of custody.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
By Richard Saferstein
PRENTICE HALL
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
5-34