Transcript Figure 15.5 Environmentally-Based Taxes as a Share of Total Tax

Figure 15.1 The Relation Between Average Life Expectancy and GDP Per Capita,
with Area Proportional to Population
Temperature Change (degrees Celsius)
6
High Projection
5
4
3
2
1
Low Projection
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
Year
Figure 15.1. Range of Predictions of Global Average Temperature Increase
over Pre-Industrial Levels, 2000-2100.
Sulfur dioxide
per capita (kg)
Kgemissions
S02 per Capita
250 200 150 100 50 00
5000
10000
15000
$ GNP per Capita
20000
25000
GNP per capita
Source: Panayotou, T., "Empirical Tests and Policy Analysis of Enviro
Figure 15.3. Environmental
Kuznets
Curveof
forDevelopment,”
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions
Degradation
at Different
Levels
1993.
CO2 emissions per capita (metric tons)
United States
20
Australia
Canada
Saudi Arabia
15
Norway
Germany
Russia
10
Spain
China
5
Switzerland
Hungary
Costa Rica
0
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
GDP per capita (2000 $, PPP)
Figure 15.4 Carbon Dioxide Emissions vs. GDP per Capita, 2002[1]
35,000
Sw
i tze
rl an
Un
d
i ted
Ki n
gdo
m
Un
i ted
Sta
te s
Sw
ed e
n
Spa
in
J ap
an
Ne
the
rl an
ds
No
r wa
y
Ital
y
Irel
an d
Aus
tral
ia
Aus
tria
Ca
nad
a
De
nm
a rk
Fra
nce
Ge
rm a
ny
Percent of Total Tax Revenue
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Figure 15.5 Environmentally-Based Taxes as a Share of Total Tax Revenue,
Selected Developed Countries
Table 15.1. Global Population Classification by Income and Environmental Impacts, 2005
Global LowerIncome Class
Global MiddleIncome Class
Global UpperIncome Class
2,343
3,018
1,004
Average income per capita (US
dollars)
507
2,274
32,112
Energy use per capita (kg oil
equivalent)
501
1,373
5,410
Electricity power consumption
per capita (kWh)
358
1,720
9,503
Carbon dioxide emissions per
capita (metric tons)
0.8
3.3
12.8
6
51
433
Population (millions)
Passenger cars per 1,000
population
Table A1.1 Stages of Demographic Transition
First Stage
Both birth and death rates are high. On average the number of children that survive in each
family is just enough to keep the population stable or very slowly growing.
Second Stage
Death rates are reduced, while birth rates stay high, so that parents are typically survived by
significantly more than the 2 children required to replace them. In the 18 th-20th centuries
this second stage developed in industrializing countries due to the nutritional advances that
followed increased agricultural productivity, and also (especially after about 1850) better
medical care and sanitation.
Third Stage
Birth rates start declining, but are still higher than death rates. The increased availability of
contraception and improvements in female education contribute to this stage. In the third
stage fertility rates are initially above replacement level, but will eventually drop to or
possibly below replacement level. Population growth slows down, though it continues
growing because of the number of child-bearing-age women.
Fourth Stage
Birth rates and death rates equalize at a low rate. Population growth is zero – but the
population is considerably larger than it was when the process began.
Fifth Stage
Birth rates are lower than death rates. When the demographic transition was first
conceptualized, the process was expected to stop at the Fourth Stage. In fact, however,
some nations may move fairly rapidly from above- to below-replacement birth rates, passing
through the fourth stage of equal birth and death rates. Population actually declines.
Figure 1 Population by Age and Sex, United States, 1900, 2000, and 2040 (projected) (to be continued)
(a) 1900
(b) 2000
(continued) Figure 1 Population by Age and Sex, United States, 1900, 2000, and 2040 (projected)
(c) 2040 (projected)
Old-Age Dependency Ratio
70
Italy
60
50
China
40
United
States
30
20
10
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
Figure 2: Old-Age Dependency Ratios, 1950-2050
2050