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Concepts and Approaches to Gender Mainstreaming in Trade: Its
“gendered” impacts on women producers and workers through current
trade agreements
EPAs and Women in Africa
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
AFRICAN TRADE POLICY CENTRE
Inception Workshop on Mainstreaming Gender into Trade Policy
21- 22 April 2009
Presentation by Karin Ulmer, APRODEV
[email protected], www.aprodev.net
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APRODEV is the Brussels-based association of the 17 European development organisations
that work closely with the World Council of Churches (WCC/AACC).
Members are: BREAD FOR ALL, BREAD FOR THE WORLD, CHRISTIAN AID, CHURCH OF
SWEDEN, CIMADE, DANCHURCHAID, DIAKONIA , EAEZ, EED, FINNCHURCHAID, KERKINACTIE
Global Ministries, HEKS / EPER, HUNGARIAN INTERCHURCH AID, ICCO, ICELANDIC CHURCH
AID, NORWEGIAN CHURCH AID, PROTESTANT SOLIDARITY, Observers: WORLD COUNCIL OF
CHURCHES, LUTHERAN WORLD FEDERATION
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APRODEV lessons learnt
• 2002: EPA Gender impact assessment - case study (Zimbabwe)
• 2003: Gender dimension of EPAs - regional & cross-sector
(West Africa)
• 2004: Sector specific - global value chain (Global Chicken)
• 2005: Framework for trade supported development strategy
(Development Benchmarks)
• 2008: Trade policy making (Trade and Governance)
• 2009: Monitoring (EPA indicators for trade impact)
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What kind of growth?
What kind of development?
“And the quality of growth, not just its quantity, is crucial for human
well-being. Growth can be jobless, rather than job creating; ruthless,
rather than poverty reducing; voiceless, rather than participatory;
rootless, rather than culturally enshrined; and futureless, rather than
environmentally friendly. Growth that is jobless, ruthless, voiceless,
rootless and futureless is not conducive to human development.”
(Jahan,1995)
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EPAs are not gender neutral
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Without gender, poverty is exacerbated
With gender, poverty is differentiated
With gender, policies are informed
Gender provides insights into dynamic interaction of micro and macro
level
• Gender insights allow to design responsive policy measures at meso level
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EPAs as instruments for development?
• Without gender, there is no sustainable development
• Gender and development is peripheral in EPAs
• Development concerns are delegated to flanking and mitigating measures
or out-sourced to Aid for Trade
• With gender, there is more insights into the pathway to development
• Gender research provides evidence to put development as overriding
objective at centre of trade policies
• Gender impact is an incentive to monitor effects of institutional gap of
trade policies and social/development policies
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Gender analysis:
A framework for differentiated impact
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Workers and producers
Consumers
Citizens
Government capacity to respond
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Gender analysis: Economic wide
framework for distributional effects
Interactions of competing interests in market context
Markets are gender biased
Gender inequality happens at three levels:
macro: expanding/decreasing economic sectors
meso: public expenditure and public policies
micro: improvement/deterioration of sources of incomes
Factors that mediate the effects
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Gender analysis: Economic wide
framework for distributional effects
• Quantity of jobs
• Quality of jobs
• Effect on household level
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Gender analysis: Economic wide
framework for distributional effects
Policy measures
• gender impact assessments
• labour market conditions
• combination of productive and reproductive gender roles
• for independent producers
• for workers and employees
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Sector specific: Findings from the UN
Agricultural Assessment (IAASTD)
IAASTD – International Assessment of Agriculture, Science and
Technology for Development
Key findings:
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Highlights agency of small holder and women farmers in local markets
Support ecosystem, soil and traditional knowledge
Farming as science of people knowing what they do
Promotes multi-functionality of agriculture
Source: www.agassessment.org
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IAASTD
Family/women farmers are an essential part of the solution, they
- have the greatest potential to improve productivity, secure livelihoods,
reduce poverty, resilience to climate change
Options
- invest in agro-forestry, eco-agriculture, energy and biodiversity
- use science as driver towards multi-functionality and resilience of
agriculture
- opening of markets and trade in a way that reward sustainable (social,
economic, equitable, environmental) practices
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Poor women’s crops have been
neglected
“So the IAASTD, the international assessment of agriculture – was called to look into
agricultural science, technology and how we can solve problems of hunger,
poverty in a way also to protect and environment and at the same time look issues
equity and people really benefit largely from agriculture. ….
The question was how are we going to do this based on the experience of the last fifty
years in science, technology and agriculture? What we came up with us basically
we need more sustainable agriculture, that means we need to think about our
production basis, think about water, about, about soil about biodiversity, support
an agriculture that will produce enough for the many people and the many more
needs of the people in the future.
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Interview with Dr. Hans Herren, co-chair of IAASTD, Brussels 24 June 2008
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State of play of Subsaharan African
agriculture and livelihoods
• Food deficit due to fast growing population
• People living on less than US $1 per day: 227mio/1990, 303mio/2002;
but slight decline in percentage from 44.6% to 44%.
• Slight decrease of chronic hunger: 33% in 1990-1992 to 31% in 2001-2003;
but increase in absolute numbers.
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Changing farming pattern
Changing demographics
Socio-economic effects of malnutrition
Rapid depletion of natural resources
Threats to biodiversity
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Gender dynamics in rural economies
Poverty and gender
Gender and trade links
• The effect of economic and trade policies on gender dynamics is critical
and winners and losers must be taken into account.
• Consumer prices may decrease as a result of increased competition, but
women may nonetheless be the ultimate losers
Trade policy making
• Development of large-scale commercial, export-orientated agriculture
• Importance of informal economy to employment is ignored.
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Gender dynamics in local poultry
markets
Gender and poverty
• Over 85% of all African households are “poultry households”;
backyard poultry farming providing some 70% of all chicken
Gender and trade links
• Women benefit from jobs, extra cash, empowers women, provides first
entry into micro entrepreneurial activities
Trade policy making
• Increase in frozen chicken imports to Cameroon (from 60,000 t in 1994 to
22,100 t in 2003) is a disaster for the national economy, public health, and
women’s entrepreneurial activities.
• Living standards of more than 1mio people (15%) affected.
• 1 t of imported chicken substitutes 5 jobs in rural economy (110 000 job)
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Gender dynamics in local poultry
markets: “Think small first”
Agriculture-for-development
Opportunities for women:
jobs in feed produce
additional cash income through marketing
improved nutritional value
disburse and control of assets
increased social status - decrease of domestic violence
capital accumulation
participation in religious and socio-cultural lives
poultry ownership ensures more economic stability, minimises risks
strengthens cohesion within local communities
Source: Ulmer (2008) Gender aspects of local chicken, in: Buntzel/Mari (2008) Global Chicken
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Gender dynamics in super markets:
“Get modern or get out”
Rapid growing supermarket chains:
• Potential:
- increase value added production
- provide incentives to private sector support farmers to comply to quality
standards
• Risk:
- profit orientated supermarkets shift risks and costs of production to
women farmers
- tend to ignore externalised social and environmental costs of agricultural
production
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Interrelatedness of agriculture:
embedded in a social context
• Women are primary user of natural resources
• Men are primary decision makers
• Each 10% increase in small-scale agricultural productivity would move
appr. 7 mio people above the dollar-a-day poverty line
• Put women farmers at centre of agricultural research and development
and research priorities and design
• Account for externalised social and environmental costs in production and
consumption patterns
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Development strategies to rural
economy
• Develop strategies to:
-integrate subsistence farming in local markets
- use multi-functionality of agriculture to exploit more nonfarm rural jobs
- prioritise local rural markets for increasing farm household income and
productivity
- integrate micro-credit programmes and credit-financed land reform in
rural economy (singling out is no solution)
• Design strategy to reorganise domestic agricultural markets to reduce
poverty and limit risks for small holders.
• Exploit potential of local marketing of cassava, sorghum, potatoes rather
than export expansion of corn, sugar, cotton, soya, palm oil
• Exploit and invest in potential of small scale farmers as producers and
traders, rather than in consumer group of the poor.
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Sector specific: Public procurement
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Important economic area accounting for significant share of GDP
Importance of public procurement for national preference
EC introduces key provisions at WTO but no S&DT provisions
Potential: liberalising procurement could provide impetus, but benefits do
not have to happen within an EPA
• Risk: reduced flexibility to use procurement to achieve development
objectives; irreversibility of EPA commitments; limited capacity for
implementation.
• Options: market opening could be subject to conditions such as
technology transfer requirements, support for supply capacity.
Source: Aprodev (2007) EPA Red Lines
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Gender instruments for EPAs (1)
Gender impact assessment
• Inform negotiations because distributional impacts matter for poverty
reduction
• Visit liberalisation schedules that are now available on gender impact of
goods, services and intellectual property
• Look systematically at each sector and sub-sector at national and regional
level
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Gender instruments for EPAs (2)
Gender-sensitive policy measures
• Reflect micro-level impacts not only macro impact
• Design policy responses at meso-level : sequencing, strategy and
interaction of domestic and trade policies
• Identify and exempt gender sensitive sectors/products from liberalisation
• Exclude sensitive agricultural sectors and textile/garments sectors
• Sequence flanking measures: advance action to compensate for income
loss
• Design policies for women’s income sources: identify gender specific
constraints to tackle competitive markets such as credit, technology,
investment, productivity, export opportunities
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Gender instruments for EPAs (3)
Gender-responsive budgeting
• Ring-fence government revenues
• Prevent reverse distribution of negative impacts (taxation)
• Gender budget analyses looks at:
Inputs: money appropriated and spent
Activities: services planned and delivered
Outputs: utilisation of planned and delivered services
Impacts: planned and actual achievement of broader objectives
• Gender audits
Source: Aprodev and ERO (2002) Concept notes on gender budgeting
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Gender instruments for EPAs (4)
Gender Development Benchmarks
• Development objectives and effects need to be linked to trade
agreements and trade policies
• Articulate how and where trade polices support and link with
development strategies
• Ensure coherence with development policies
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Gender Benchmark on Special and
Sensitive Products
In addition to WTO criteria for special products of poverty alleviation,
employment and food security, a fourth criteria on disproportionate
gender impact could be added.
Gender criteria could be defined as follows:
- if a sector is particularly critical to the livelihood of poor women and
liberalisation would jeopardise this function, then the sector is eligible for
nomination as sensitive until the affected women can compete or find
other comparable income opportunities
- alternatively, if a sector is liberalised and found to have a
disproportionate impact on poor women, then liberalisation schedules can
be halted or reversed.
A process could be designed whereby:
a. Each ACP country lists the gender sensitive product/sector on the basis of
objective/agreed criteria (women’s employment, share of credits,
decision-making, autonomy in entrepreneurial activities)
b. Possibly, limit number of gender sensitive products per country
c. Gender sensitive products should be declared special products.
d. Safeguard measures can be evoked for gender sensitive products.
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Source: Ulmer (2007) Equity in trade negotiations:
gender review of EPAs.TNI,Vol6No2
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Gender Equity Benchmark
Equity benchmarks should allow and promote positive measures under aid
for trade, development support, investment, and/or mitigating and
accompanying stipulations that are designed in a way that explicitly
address gender specific measures. These include for example, safety nets,
provisions that promote women entrepreneurs, regulations that
encourage supply capacity building, and control over productive
resources.
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Preventing Dumping of Surplus Meat–
Parts on Vulnerable Developing Country
Markets
ACDIC, APRODEV, EED, ICCO, SOS FAIM - May 2008
Allow defensive trade rules to stop dumping practices
• Developing countries have the right and obligation to apply effective trade defence
instruments against import surges and dumping in the meat sector. Poultry, among others,
must be allowed to be listed as a “Special Product” according to the common WTO definition.
It also must qualify for triggering the Special Safeguard Mechanism under the terms
proposed by the G33 in the Doha Round of the WTO.
• Developed Countries must respect Developing Countries’ right to exempt certain products
from free trade agreements and to protect themselves from private business practices, which
undermine the objectives outlined for Special Products.
• Exporting countries bear a responsibility to prevent dumping practices in Developing
Countries for “special and sensitive products”. A country accused of dumping in this field
must investigate the complaint and provide proof that there is no dumping. If evidence is not
provided, the accused country has to bear the costs of the litigation and must take remedial
action.
• A simple complaint mechanism for dumping cases must be introduced into the international
trade regime. Developing Countries and their civil society organisations, such as producer
associations, must be entitled to invoke this mechanism.
• Products, which receive considerable product specific support, should not be exported to
developing countries.
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Monitoring EPA poverty
and gender equity ambitions
EPA indicators should serve three key purposes:
1. to monitor implementation of commitments, in particular disbursement
and effective delivery of pledged financial and technical assistance
2. to monitor impacts of EPA implementation on sustainable development,
poverty reduction and gender equality
3. to trigger implementation of EPA commitments by ACP countries or to
qualify them for exemptions
Source: Aprodev (2009) EPA indicators
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Monitoring EPA poverty
and gender equity ambitions
• Sequencing of delivery on commitments through institutional and projectlevel monitoring
• Trends through statistics and indices to ensure that progress is moving in
the right direction
• Impacts at firm and livelihoods level, including through monitoring by civil
society groups to assess disaggregated and non-economic impacts not
provided by trend data, and to improve governance by making trade policy
more responsive, accountable, consultative and effective
Source: EPA round table report: Aprodev, One World Action, Commonwealth, April 2009
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Monitoring gender impact
• Lack of informal and service sector data, less issue of gendered data but
more an issue of lack of informal and service sector data
• Challenge to get a gender picture from data and trigger proposed which is
part of broader framework
• Complement macro-economic trends with monitoring micro household
impacts, labour conditions
• Monitor sequencing: are safety nets in place, are retraining
programmes available?
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Role of civil society in EPA monitoring
• Involving civil society in the monitoring process is important from the
point of view of improving the governance of trade agreements but also as
civil society provide the opportunity to effectively monitor grass roots
impacts, including distributional and non-economic impacts, critical for
assessing progress towards poverty eradication aims.
• Monitor EPAs impact on different social and economic groups. Involve
them directly in this exercise. Monitoring is a practical means to ensure
the agreement and flanking measures are implemented correctly and that
any unintended impacts can be addressed. Involving affected groups is a
means to ensure responsive, accountable governance and to understand
impacts at firm and household level.
Source: Aprodev (2008):Trade and Governance: Does governance matter for trade?
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African Ombudswomen for EPA
Ombudswomen (problem solving in the EPAs : where to turn?)
• The African Ombudswomen could receive and investigate complaints
about gender discrimination in EPA institutions.
• Complaints could be invited from citizens, companies, regional offices,
associations and NGOs that concern the lack of transparency in EPA
institutions and help solve discrimination or unfairness in EPA dealings.
• The Ombudswomen could provide services specifically to women as
citizens, in companies, NGOs, associations and other organisations to
advice them on how to best proceed with their complaints or information
requests.
• The Ombudswomen could cooperate closely with other complainthandling bodies at national and regional or all African level.
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