Transcript pengantar ekologi ekonomi

MK. EKONOMI SUMBERDAYA ALAM & LINGKUNGAN
PENGANTAR
EKOLOGI-EKONOMI
Diabstraksikan : smno.psdl.ppsub .2012/13
TIGA PILAR KEBERLANJUTAN - KELESTARIAN
Three circles enclosed
within one another showing
how both economy and
society are subsets of our
planetary ecological
system.
This view is useful for
correcting the
misconception, sometimes
drawn from the previous
"three pillars" diagram, that
portions of social and
economic systems can exist
independently from the
environment.
Sumber:
…….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
EKOLOGI-EKONOMI
Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic
research that aims to address the interdependence and
coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems over
time and space.
It is distinguished from environmental economics, which is the
mainstream economic analysis of the environment, by its
treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and
its emphasis upon preserving natural capital.
One survey of German economists found that ecological and
environmental economics are different schools of economic
thought, with ecological economists emphasizing "strong"
sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital
can be substituted for human-made capital.
Sumber:
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EKOLOGI-EKONOMI
Ecological economics includes the study of the
metabolism of society, that is, the study of the flows of
energy and materials that enter and exit the economic
system.
This subfield is also called biophysical economics,
sometimes referred to also as bioeconomics.
It is based on a conceptual model of the economy
connected to, and sustained by, a flow of energy,
materials, and ecosystem services.
Analysts from a variety of disciplines have conducted
research on the economy-environment relationship, with
concern for energy and material flows and sustainability,
environmental quality, and economic development.
Sumber:
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ALAM & EKOLOGI
Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy
as pollution and waste.
The potential of an environment to provide services and
materials is referred to as an "environment's source
function", and this function is depleted as resources are
consumed or pollution contaminates the resources.
The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to
absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when
waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, longterm damage occurs.
Some persistent pollutants, such as some organic pollutants and
nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all; ecological
economists emphasize minimizing "cumulative pollutants".
Pollutants affect human health and the health of the climate.
Sumber:
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VALUASI EKONOMI
The economic value of natural capital and ecosystem
services is accepted by mainstream environmental
economics, but is emphasized as especially important
in ecological economics. Ecological economists may
begin by estimating how to maintain a stable
environment before assessing the cost in dollar terms.
Ecological economist Robert Costanza led an
attempted valuation of the global ecosystem in 1997.
Initially published in Nature, the article concluded on
$33 trillion with a range from $16 trillion to $54 trillion
(in 1997, total global GDP was $27 trillion).
Half of the value went to nutrient cycling.
Sumber:
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DIAGRAM LINGKAR MODEL EKONOMI
“EXTERNALITIES”
SOCIETY
?
ECONOMY
ENVIRONMENT
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
?
JASA-JASA LINGKUNGAN
A study was carried out by Costanza and colleagues to determine
the 'price' of the services provided by the environment.
This was determined by averaging values obtained from a range of
studies conducted in very specific context and then transferring
these without regard to that context.
Dollar figures were averaged to a per hectare number for different
types of ecosystem e.g. wetlands, oceans.
A total was then produced which came out at 33 trillion US dollars
(1997 values), more than twice the total GDP of the world at the
time of the study.
Sumber:
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JASA-JASA EKOSISTEM
Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes
that are supplied by natural ecosystems.
Collectively, these benefits are known as ecosystem services and
include products like clean drinking water and processes such as
the decomposition of wastes.
While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem
services for decades, these services were popularized and their
definitions formalized by the United Nations 2004 Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a four-year study involving more
than 1,300 scientists worldwide.
This grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories:
provisioning, such as the production of food and water; regulating,
such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as
nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and cultural, such as spiritual
and recreational benefits.
Sumber:
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EMPAT KATEGORI JASA-JASA EKOSISTEM
Provisioning services
• food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices
• water
• pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
Regulating services
• carbon sequestration and climate regulation
• waste decomposition and detoxification
• purification of water and air
• crop pollination
• pest and disease control
Supporting services
• nutrient dispersal and cycling
• seed dispersal
• Primary production
Cultural services
• cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration
• recreational experiences (including ecotourism)
• scientific discovery
Sumber:
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KAPITAL ALAM
Natural capital is the extension of the economic notion of capital
(manufactured means of production) to goods and services
relating to the natural environment.
Natural capital is thus the stock of natural ecosystems that yields a
flow of valuable ecosystem goods or services into the future. For
example, a stock of trees or fish provides a flow of new trees or
fish, a flow which can be indefinitely sustainable.
Natural capital may also provide services like recycling wastes or
water catchment and erosion control.
Since the flow of services from ecosystems requires that they
function as whole systems, the structure and diversity of the
system are important components of natural capital.
Sumber:
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LINGKUNGAN sbg ‘SUBSET’ dari EKONOMI
EKONOMI
EKOSISTEM
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
REVOLUSI INDUSTRI MASA DEPAN
The "next industrial revolution" depends on the
espousal of four central strategies:
1. The conservation of resources through more
effective manufacturing processes,
2. The reuse of materials as found in natural
systems,
3. A change in values from quantity to quality,
4. Investing in natural capital, or restoring and
sustaining natural resources.
Sumber:
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KAPITAL ALAM
Natural capital is described in the book Natural
Capitalism as a metaphor for the mineral, plant, and
animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed
as a means of production of oxygen, water filter,
erosion preventer, or provider of other ecosystem
services.
It is one approach to ecosystem valuation, an
alternative to the traditional view of all non-human life
as passive natural resources, and to the idea of
ecological health.
Human knowledge and understanding of the natural
environment is never complete, therefore the
boundaries of natural capital “expand or contract” as
knowledge is gained or lost.
Sumber:
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EKONOMI NEO-KLASIK 1890-
No Ingredients, only labor and capital
P = f(L,K)= ALa . BKb
(Cobb-Douglas multiplication)
Labor
(Chef )
=
x
X
Kapital (Mixing bowl)
Kapital (oven)
ROTI?
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
EKONOMI NEO-KLASIK 1890INFINITE SUBSTITUT-ABILITY:
2P = f(L,K)= 2ALa . 2BKb
More Chefs
x
or Bigger Mixing bowl
=
More
Bread?
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
HUBUNGAN MANUSIA DENGAN LINGKUNGAN SEKITARNYA
The Ecological Economics
Model of the relationship
between the Human Economy
and the Earth System
highlighting the importance of
sources, sinks, feedbacks and
scale.
The Earth System can be
viewed as the Natural Capital
and all other forms of capital
are nested within and
dependent upon it. Population
can be thought of as Human
Capital, referring not just to
population size, but also to
people’s education, skill sets,
norms, standards and laws.
Sumber: http://iluvsa.blogspot.com/2009/05/parallel-goals-political-secession.html …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
UNGKAPAN-UNGKAPAN
• “There is no reason we can’t have a perfectly healthy
economy with virtually no resources whatsoever”
Robert Solow
• “We can do without agriculture because it’s only 2%
of the economy.”
Norgaard?
• “neo-classical economics is a form of brain damage” - Hazel Henderson
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
EKONOMI - EKOLOGIS
NO “EXTERNALITIES”
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
EKSTERNALITAS
Ecological economics is founded upon the view that the
neoclassical economics (NCE) assumption that environmental and
community costs and benefits are mutually canceling
"externalities" is not warranted.
Juan Martinez Alier, for instance shows that the bulk of consumers
are automatically excluded from having an impact upon the prices
of commodities, as these consumers are future generations who
have not been born yet.
Concerning these externalities, Paul Hawken argues that the only
reason why goods produced unsustainably are usually cheaper than
goods produced sustainably is due to a hidden subsidy, paid by the
non-monetized human environment, community or future
generations.
Sumber:
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VALUASI EKONOMI JASA-JASA LINGKUNGAN
The economic valuation of ecosystem services also involves social
communication and information, areas that remain particularly
challenging and are the focus of many researchers. In general, the
idea is that although individuals make decisions for any variety of
reasons, trends reveal the aggregative preferences of a society, from
which the economic value of services can be inferred and assigned.
The six major methods for valuing ecosystem services in monetary
terms are:
1. Avoided cost
Services allow society to avoid costs that would have been
incurred in the absence of those services (e.g. waste treatment by
wetland habitats avoids health costs)
2. Replacement cost
Services could be replaced with man-made systems (e.g.
restoration of the Catskill Watershed cost less than the
construction of a water purification plant)
Sumber:
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VALUASI EKONOMI JASA-JASA LINGKUNGAN
3. Factor income
Services provide for the enhancement of incomes (e.g. improved
water quality increases the commercial take of a fishery and
improves the income of fishers)
4. Travel cost
Service demand may require travel, whose costs can reflect the
implied value of the service (e.g. value of ecotourism experience
is at least what a visitor is willing to pay to get there)
5. Hedonic pricing
Service demand may be reflected in the prices people will pay for
associated goods (e.g. coastal housing prices exceed that of
inland homes)
6. Contingent valuation
Service demand may be elicited by posing hypothetical scenarios
that involve some valuation of alternatives (e.g. visitors willing to
pay for increased access to national parks)
Sumber:
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INTERAKSI EKOSISTEM DAN EKONOMI
“Eminent biologists and U.N.
reports concur that
“business-as-usual” will drive
half of all species on Earth to
extinction within this century.
Collectively, we are violating
the first precept—“do not
harm living beings”—on the
largest possible scale.
We cannot foresee the
biological consequences for
human life when so many
species that invisibly
contribute to our own wellbeing vanish from the planet.
Sumber: http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/ecological-economics …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
HUKUM TERMODINAMIKA
Thermodynamics is about energy, its flow and its
transformation from one form into another form.
Sumber:
http://casey.brown.edu/chemistry/research/crp/Edu/Documents/00_Chem201/1_intro/1-intro-frames.htm……..
Diunduh 17/11/2012
EKONOMI - EKOLOGIS
Sietem Terbuka
Hukum I : Konservasi Massa
(some)
ECONOMY
(waste)
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
A Short Primer On Ecological Economics
DAUR ULANG MATERIAL
Ecological Economics recognizes
that the human economy is a
smaller, open sub-system of a
finite, non-growing, and materially
closed ecosystem.
The economy is open in that it
receives the input of the sun
(energy) and natural resources
(matter) and transforms those
material inputs into commodities
through a variety of production
processes. Just as commodities are
produced, so is the residue, or
waste, of these production
systems. The waste must eventually
be returned to, or absorbed by, the
larger environment.
Sumber: http://www.griesingerfilms.com/fromorigvid.html …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
PAJAK HIJAU = GREEN TAX
(some)
ECONOMY
(waste)
3 Ss:
Sources
Sub-surface
Resources
Sites
Surface locations: ie:
land
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax.
Sinks
Absorbtion
waste
Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept.of
7, 2004.
HUBUNGAN EKONOMI DAN LINGKUNGAN
The ecological economics model.
The placement of the economy in the center reflects the fact
that it is contained by the environment, not a suggestion that
human activity is the "center of the world."
The environment is not merely a factor of production (as it is
portrayed in the conventional "circular flow" economic model),
but rather the containing system for the economy.
The environment is the source of all materials humans use and
the "sink" into which all wastes go; moreover, wastes stay in the
system and do not go "away.“
Sumber: http://www.pelicanweb.org/solisustv07n05page8.html …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
EKONOMI - EKOLOGIS
Entropi = disorder, randomness
Hukum II: Entropi selalu meningkat
(waste)
ECONOMY
LOW ENTROPY
(dissipated)
HIGH ENTROPY
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
EKONOMI PRODUKSI - EKSTERNALITAS
The problem is that the way owners
use their land may affect others.
If they dump garbage on their
neighbors' land, clearly they are
infringing upon others' rights.
If they burn garbage and the
resulting smoke blows onto nearby
properties?
Economics has dealt with this largely
by labeling such items externalities,
costs for which the responsible party
does not pay.
It then becomes up to the
community, and usually the
government, to decide how to deal
with externalities.
Sumber:
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EKONOMI - EKOLOGIS
WHAT IS ANTI-ENTROPIC? (SYNTROPIC)
(waste)
ECONOMY
LOW ENTROPY
HIGH ENTROPY
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Using the Ecological Social Accounting Matrix (ESAM) for Lesotho that integrates
ecological implications of the LHWP with economic benefits of the project, the paper
analysed the impact of lost ecological services downstream the LHWP dams in
Lesotho on the well-being of households directly affected by the project (riparians)
and the general economy of the country.
Lesotho
Highlands
Water Project
(LHWP)
Flow diagram
of ecological
and socioeconomic
flows.
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818104001985 …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
EKONOMI - EKOLOGIS
SISTEM TERTUTUP
earth
ECONOMY
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES GENERAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Ecosystem Services are the direct benefits to Quality of Life from Ecosystem Structure and
Function.
Sumber:
http://willbmisled.com/blogs/blog3.php…….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
SCALE-Full World or Empty World?
Referensi:
Ecological
Economics
Principles &
Applications,
Farley and Daly
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
ECOLOGICAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND NATURAL CAPITAL
Ecosystem Services and Dis-Services From Agriculture
Sumber: Zhang, W., Rickets, T., Kremen, C., Carney, K., Swinton, S. (2007). Ecosystem services and dis-services to
agriculture. Ecological Economics, 64: 253-260.
DIS-UTILITAS MARGINAL
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
PERBEDAAN-PERBEDAAN
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
MODEL SKY-TRUST
(some)
ECONOMY
(waste)
Sumberdaya
Sub-surface
Resources
Ke Hulu…….!
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Comparing urban solid waste recycling from the viewpoint of urban
metabolism based on physical input–output model: A case of Suzhou in China
Sai Liang, Tianzhu Zhang
Waste Management 32 (2012) 220–225
. Investigating impacts of urban solid waste recycling on urban
metabolism contributes to sustainable urban solid waste management
and urban sustainability.
Using a physical input–output model and scenario analysis, urban
metabolism of Suzhou in 2015 is predicted and impacts of four categories
of solid waste recycling on urban metabolism are illustrated: scrap tire
recycling, food waste recycling, fly ash recycling and sludge recycling.
Sludge recycling has positive effects on reducing all material flows. Thus,
sludge recycling for biogas is regarded as an accepted method. Moreover,
technical levels of scrap tire recycling and food waste recycling should be
improved to produce positive effects on reducing more material flows.
Fly ash recycling for cement production has negative effects on reducing
all material flows except solid wastes. Thus, other fly ash utilization
methods should be exploited. In addition, the utilization and treatment of
secondary wastes from food waste recycling and sludge recycling should
be concerned.
Sumber:
…….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
Reuse of wastewater effluent in concrete mixing and the effect of high temperatures
on its residual properties
Jasem M. Alhumoud and Mohammad Terro.
Int. J. Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol. 9, Nos. 1/2/3, 2010
This paper investigates the suitability of using wastewater effluent for mixing in concrete.
In particular, the effect of elevated temperatures up to 700°C on the compressive
strength of concrete made with treated wastewater has been experimentally studied.
The concrete specimens consisted of cubes that were cast using potable water (PW),
primary treated wastewater (PTWW), secondary treated wastewater (STWW), and
tertiary treated wastewater (TTWW) obtained from a local wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP).
The properties of concrete that were tested consisted of: setting time, compressive
strength at ambient and elevated temperatures (up to 700°C), and resistance to
corrosion of reinforcing steel.
In general, at elevated temperatures, the strength of concrete made with treated
wastewater exhibited lower values than concrete made with PW.
The tertiary treated wastewater, of the type produced from wastewater
treatment plants in Kuwait, is found to be suitable for mixing concrete with no
adverse effects.
RECYCLING BIOWASTE – HUMAN AND ANIMAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
Ann Albihn
Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2002, 43(Suppl 1):S69-S75
Biowaste from the food chain is of potential benefit to use in agriculture. Agriculture in
general and organic farming in particular needs alternative plant nutrients. However, the
quality concerning hygiene and soil contaminants must be assured. This recycling has to
be regulated in a way that harmful effects on soil, vegetation, animals and man are
prevented.
The problems with heavy metals and organic contaminants have been focused on. Still,
maximum threshold values are continuously discussed to avoid an increase of soil
concentrations. The effect on the ecosystems of residues from use of medicines needs
further attention.
There is also a risk for a spread of antibiotic resistant micro-organisms in the
environment and then to animals and man. Infectious diseases may be spread from
biowaste and new routes of disease transmission between animals and humans can be
created. Zoonotic diseases in this context play a central role. Pathogens recently
introduced to a country may be further spread when biowaste is recycled. The very good
health status of domestic animals in the Nordic countries may then quickly change.
The quality of biowaste is of enormous importance if biowaste is to gain general
acceptance for agricultural use, especially for organic production. A balance
needs to be maintained between risk and advantage for its use.
SKY - TRUST MODEL
Key Features of U.S. Sky Trust
Here are the key features of the proposed U.S. Sky Trust.
1. Carbon emissions cap set initially at 1.346 billion tons, the 1990 level
2. Tradable carbon emission permits sold annually to energy companies
at the top of the carbon chain.
3. All revenue from permit sales goes into a nationwide trust.
4. Trust pays equal annual dividends to all U.S. citizens (like the Alaska
Permanent Fund).
5. Dividends can be placed tax-free in Individual Retirement Accounts or
Individual Development Accounts for children.
6. Initial price ceiling on carbon emission permits of $25 a ton; ceiling
rises 7 percent a year for four years.
7. Transition Fund to help those most adversely affected by higher
carbon prices. Fund starts at 25 percent of permit revenue, declines 2.5
percent per year.
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
PENGELOLAAN = GOVERNANCE
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
CO2 MITIGATION AND STORAGE METHODS
The first step toward CO2
mitigation starts from root of the
issue: the conservation and the
efficient use of energy.
Switching from coal burning to
emission-free or low emission
alternative forms of energy like
hydro and geothermal helps to
curtail CO2 emission.
For CO2 that cannot be eliminated
from conservation efforts, there
are further mitigation method
available:
1.
2.
3.
Sumber:
Storage in geological formation
such as deep saline aquifers,
depleted oil and gas fields, in coal
seams.
Storage in fertilized ocean water
where plankton growth increases
CO2 absorption from the
atmosphere.
Storage in soil through agriculture
and forestry
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 33, No. 2 …….. Diunduh 17/11/2012
PENGELOLAAN = GOVERNANCE
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
CONSILIENCE
“~Resources are infinite and the economy can
grow forever”
(Julian Simon)
“Anyone who thinks you can have infinite
growth on a finite planet is either a madman or
an economist”
(Kenneth Boulding)
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
EKONOMI – EKOLOGIS:
Human Development
Growth = increase in throughput-quantitative
Development
Growth
Development = qualitative improvement
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Intro to Ecological Economics-population
Teori Transisi Demografis
Growth
Development
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Intro to Ecological Economics-population
Pertumbuhan penduduk dunia
Negara-negara maju
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Intro to Ecological Economics-forest succession
Growth
Development
Reorganization Aggredation Transition Steady-state (mature)
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
We hear: “There is no conflict between economic growth and
environmental protection!”
Five building blocks of an
inclusive green economy
Examples of the green
economy in practice show
great potential for
delivering a “triple
bottom line” of job–
creating economic growth
coupled with
environmental protection
and social inclusion.
However, there are
significant barriers to
realizing this potential on
a large scale.
Sumber: http://www.povertyenvironment.net/pep/……. DIUNDUH 17/11/2012
World GDP and CO2
$100,000
370
330
$1,000
World GDP
CO2 level
310
$100
ATMOSPHERIC CO2
350
290
$10
270
$1
250
1
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
5
0
1
2
0
0
1
2
5
0
1
3
0
0
1
3
5
0
1
4
0
0
1
4
5
0
1
5
0
0
1
5
5
0
1
6
0
0
1
6
5
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
5
0
1
8
0
0
1
8
5
0
1
9
0
0
1
9
5
0
2
0
0
0
World GDP Billions US$$
$10,000
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
GDP 1825: ~$200 BILLION
2000: $41,000 B ILLION OR $41 TRILLION
=205X 1825 level.
ATM CO2 CONCENTRATION parts per million(ppm)
CO2 vs WORLD GDP
370
350
330
310
290
270
$1
$10
$100
$1,000
$10,000
$100,000
WORLD GDP Billions of 1990 Intl $$ Log scale (source: De Long)
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
60 Million yrs of CO2
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
KERUSAKAN IKLIM
Jumlah Bencana
Tipe-tipe Bencana di Dunia
Sumber: United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
Secretariat, Yokohama 1994
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
CLIMATE DAMAGE
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Europe in August 2003
COUNTRY
DEATHS
France
14,802
Germany
7000
High temperatures of up to 105.4 degrees
Fahrenheit, the hottest since records began in 1901, raised
mortality some 10 percent above average.
Spain
4230
High temperatures coupled with elevated ground-level ozone
concentrations exceeding the European Union's health-risk
threshold.
Italy
4175
Temperatures in parts of the country averaged 16 degrees
Fahrenheit higher than previous year.
UK
2045
The first triple digit (Fahrenheit) temperatures were recorded in
London.
Neth
1400
Temperatures ranged some 14 degrees warmer than normal.
Portugal
1316
Temperatures were above 104 degrees Fahrenheit throughout
much of the country.
Belgium
150
TOTAL
35,118
DETAILS
Temperatures soared to 104 degrees Fahrenheit in parts of the
country; temperatures in Paris were the highest since recordkeeping began in 1873.
Temperatures exceeded any in the Royal Meteorological Society's
records dating back to 1833.
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
ESA Listings and GDP
$10
1400
$9
1200
$8
1000
$7
800
$6
$5
600
$4
400
R2 = 98.4
200
$3
0
1973
1980
1990
2001
Source: The Wildlife Society Technical Review 2003-1.
Sumber: Introduction to Ecological Economics. Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Sebab-sebab Bencana Lingkungan
Urbanisasi
Pertanian
Water diversions (e.g., reservoirs)
Recreation, tourism development
Pencemaran
Peternakan
247
205
160
148
143
136
Czech
et al.Economics.
2000. Bioscience
50(7):593-601.
Sumber: Introduction
to Ecological
Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund
Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.
Sebab-sebab Bencana Lingkungan
Ekstraksi mineral dan Migas
Spesies non-alamiah
Panen/Pemanenan
Modified fire regimes
Jalan raya
Pembangunan industri
134
115
101
83
83
81
Czech
et al.
2000. Bioscience
50(7):593-601.
Sumber: Introduction
to Ecological
Economics.
Greentax. Gary Flomenhoft-Gund
Institute. Sept. 7, 2004.