Transcript 2 - My CCSD

Organic Chemistry
CH. 25
Definitions
• Organic means “based on carbon”
• Hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements
are sometimes present
• Inorganic means all those compounds
without carbon
• Exceptions: Diamond, graphite, carbon
dioxide
What’s So Special About Carbon?
It can form 4 covalent bonds
With other carbon atoms
With other elements
Forms long chains (straight or
branched)
• Rings and hoops
•
•
•
•
C C C
Types of Carbon AtomsH
H
C C H
• Primary carbon (1o)
– a carbon bonded to
one other carbon
H
• Secondary carbon (2o)
– a carbon bonded to
two other carbons
•
H
H
C C C
C C C
H
H
Tertiary carbon (3o)
H
H
C C
– a carbon bonded to
H C C C
three other carbons
H
C
C C H
C
C C H
Some organic chemicals
Medicines
DNA
•Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients
•Excipients
Fuels
Materials
Essential oils
Pigments
Hydrocarbons
• Compounds which contain only carbon
and hydrogen
• Obtained from petroleum distillation
• Fuels, solvents, lubricants, waxes, paving
materials
• Starting materials for countless other
products
Hydrocarbons- Types
• Aliphatic
Long chains (can be
branched)
• Alicyclic
Rings or hoops
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
• 2 Types
• Saturated (only single bonded carbons)
• Unsaturated (can contain double or triple
bonded carbons)
Saturated Hydrocarbons:
Alkanes
•
•
•
•
All end in –ane
Only single bonds
Generic formula CnH(2n+2)
Known as a homologous series (add CH2 unit
each time)
–
–
–
–
Methane CH4 (Natural Gas)
Propane C3H8 (common fuel gas)
Butane C4H10 (common fuel gas)
Gasoline (A mixture of liquid hydrocarbons from
heptane C7H16 to Decane C10H22
Alkanes
The First 10 “Normal” Alkanes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Name
Formula
M.P.
B.P.
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
C4H10
C5H12
C6H14
C7H16
C8H18
C9H20
C10H22
-183
-172
-187
-138
-130
-95
-91
-57
-54
-30
-162
-89
-42
0
36
68
98
126
151
174
# Structural Isomers
1
1
1
2
3
5
9
18
35
75
C1 - C4 are Gases
at Room Temperature
C5 - C16 are Liquids
at Room Temperature
Prefixes for # of Carbons
1
Meth
6
Hex
2
Eth
7
Hept
3
Prop
8
Oct
4
But
9
Non
5
Pent
10
Dec
IUPAC Rules for
Naming Branched Alkanes
– Find and name the parent chain in the hydrocarbon this forms the root of the hydrocarbon name
– Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain
starting at the end closest to the branching
– Name alkane branches by dropping the “ane” from
the names and adding “yl”. A one-carbon branch is
called “methyl”, a two-carbon branch is “ethyl”, etc…
– When there are more than one type of branch (ethyl
and methyl, for example), they are named
alphabetically
– Finally, use prefixes to indicate multiple branches
Branched- Chains
• Designate the location (number of the carbon
on the parent chain) for each attached group
2-methyl
1
2
3
4
5
Some Simple Alkanes
• 2-methylpentane
• 3-ethylhexane
• 2,2-dimethylbutane
• 2,3-dimethylbutane
Example 1: 2,2-dimethylpentane
2
• The parent chain is indicated by
4
the ROOT of the name CH2 5
CH2 3
1
“pentane”. This means there
CH3
CH2
CH3
are 5 carbons in the parent
chain.
• “dimethyl” tells us that there are TWO
methyl branches on the parent chain.
A methyl branch is made of a single
carbon atom.
CH3
4
CH2
C
1
CH3
CH2
3
CH3
CH3
5
• “2,2-” tell us that BOTH methyl
branches are on the second carbon
atom in the parent chain.
Example 2: 3-ethyl-2,4dimethylheptane
2
4
• The parent chain is indicated
CH2 5
CH2 3
1
by the ROOT of the name CH2
CH2
CH3
“heptane”. This means there
are 7 carbons in the parent
H2C 6 7
chain.
CH3
CH3
CH3
• “2,4-dimethyl” tells us there are
TWO methyl branches on the
CH
CH
parent chain, at carbons #2 and #4.
CH
CH
CH
2
3
CH2
CH3
• “3-ethyl-” tell us there is an ethyl
CH2
branch (2-carbon branch) on
CH3 carbon #3 of the parent chain.
Example 3: 2,3,3-trimethyl-4propyloctane
• The parent chain is indicated
by the ROOT of the name “octane”. This means there
are 8 carbons in the parent
chain.
2
1
3
5
4
6
7
3
5
4
2
6
7
1
8
CH3
• “2,3,3-trimethyl” tells us there are
CH3THREECmethyl branches
CH2 - one on
CH #2 andCH
CH2#3.
carbon
two on carbon
8
CH3
CH3
• “4-propyl-”
tellCH
us there
is CH
a propyl
2
2
branch (3-carbon branch)
CH2 on CH3
carbon #4 of the parent chain.
CH3
Example 4: Name the molecules shown!
• parent chain has 5 carbons “pentane”
• two methyl branches - start
counting from the right - #2
and #3
• 2,3-dimethylpentane
3
4
5
CH3
CH
CH2
CH3
CH
CH3
CH3
• parent chain has 8 carbons “octane”
• two methyl branches - start
counting from the left - #3 and #4
• one ethyl branch - #5
• name branches alphabetically
5-ethyl-3,4-dimethyloctane
Isomers
• Straight chain alkanes: An alkane that
has all its carbons connected in a row.
• Branched chain alkanes: An alkane that
has a branching connection of carbons.
Structural Isomerism
• Structural isomers are
molecules with the same
chemical formulas but
different molecular structures
- different “connectivity”.
• They arise because of the
many ways to create
branched hydrocarbons.
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH2
CH3
n-pentane, C5H12
CH3
CH2
CH3
CH
CH3
2-methlbutane, C5H12
Isomers
• Isomers - organic molecules that have:
– Identical molecular formulas, but
– Differing internal arrangement of atoms
24
•Different isomers are completely different compounds.
They have different structures, different physical
properties such as melting point and boiling point, and
may have different physiological properties.
•Isomers: carbons in butane (C4H10) can be
arranged in two ways; four carbons in a row
(linear alkane) or a branching (branched
alkane). These two structures are two isomers
for butane.
Learning Check
• Draw all possible structural isomers of C5H12
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes
• 1 Double Bond
• Homologous Series remains the same, add CH2
each time
• Generic formula CnH2n
• Ethene (C2H4) common name ethylene
• Butene (C4H8)
• 2 double bonds are called Dienes
• 3 double bonds are called Trienes
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkynes
•
•
•
•
•
•
Contains a triple bond
Names end in -yne
Generic formula CnH(2n-2)
Most Familiar example is ethyne
Common name acetylene C2H2
Welding fuel kept dissolved in acetone
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
When the carbon chain has 4 or more C atoms, number
the chain to give the lowest number to the double or
triple bond.
1
2 3 4
CH2=CHCH2CH3
1-butene
CH3CH=CHCH3
2-butene

CH3C CCH3
2-butyne
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
When the carbon chain has 4 or more C atoms, number
the chain to give the lowest number to the double or
triple bond.
1
2 3 4
CH2=CHCH2CH3
1-butene
CH3CH=CHCH3
2-butyne
2-butene

CH3C CCH3
Alicyclic Hydrocarbons
• 2 types
• Saturated rings
– Cyclohexane C6H12
• Aromatic rings
– Benzene
C6H6
Alkanes - Cycloalkanes
• A cycloalkane is made of a hydrocarbon chain
that has been joined to make a “ring”.
H2
C
109.5° bond angle
CH2
CH3
CH3
n-propane
C3H8
H2C
60° bond angle
unstable!!
CH2
cyclopropane
C3H6
•Note that two hydrogen atoms were lost in forming the ring!
•What is the general formula for a cycloalkane?
Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes: An alkane that contains a ring of carbon
atoms. Ring sizes from 3 carbons to 30 or higher are
known.
Drawing and Naming Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes are represented by polygons. A triangle
represents cyclopropane, a square represents
cyclobutane, a pentagon represents cyclopentane, and
so on.
•Line structure: A shorthand way of
drawing structures in which atoms aren’t
shown; instead a carbon atom is
understood to be at each corner and
hydrogens are “understood”.
Additional Rules for Naming Cyclics
•Step 1: Use the cycloalkane name as
the parent chain.
•Step 2: Number the substituents
starting at the group that has
alphabetical priority, and proceed
around the ring in the direction that
gives the second substituent the lower
possible number.
Cycloalkanes with Side Groups
CH3
methylcyclopentane
CH3
CH3
1,2-dimethylcyclopentane
CH3
CH3
1,2,4-trimethylcyclohexane
CH3
Learning Check
Write the IUPAC name for each of the following
unsaturated compounds:
A.CH3CH2CCCH3
CH3
CH3
B.
CH3C=CHCH3
C.
Learning Check
CH 3
CH 3
CH 3
CH 3
CH3
Name those alkenes...
H
C
H
C
cis-4-methyl-2-pentene
H3C
2-methyl-2-hexene
CH CH3
H3C
H2
C
trans-2-bromo-3-methyl2-pentene
Br
H2Ccyclopentene
CH2
C
H
C
H
cis-3-heptene
Cis and Trans Isomers
Double bond is fixed
Cis/trans Isomers are possible
CH3
CH3
CH = CH
cis
CH3
CH = CH
trans
CH3
Cis- and Trans- terminology
If alkenes have two different substituents at each end
of the C=C then they can exist as stereoisomers
because there is restricted rotation of the double
bond.
• In cis isomers, two methyl groups are close
together on the same side of the double
bond.
• In trans isomer, two methyl groups are far apart on
opposite side of the double bond.
• Both cis and trans isomers have the same formula
and connections between the atoms but have
different three dimensional structures because the
way the groups are attached to the carbons.
• Cis-trans isomerism occurs in an alkene whenever
each double bond carbon is bonded to two different
substituent groups. Cis-trans isomerism is not
possible if one of the double bond carbons is
attached to two identical groups.
Name These
CH3
C
H
CH3
C
Cl
CH2 CH3
CH2 CH3
C C
H
Cl
Aromatic Compounds and Benzene
Aromatic compounds contain benzene.
Benzene, C6H6 , is represented as a six carbon ring
with 3 double bonds.
Two possible resonance structures can be drawn to
show benzene in this form.
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
• Experimental evidence suggest that all six carboncarbon bonds in benzene are identical.
• The properties, including the above one, of benzene
can only be explained by assuming that the actual
structure of benzene is an average of the above two
possible equivalent structures-known as resonance.
• Simple aromatic compounds like benzene are nonpolar, insoluble in water, volatile, and flammable.
• Unlike alkenes, several aromatic hydrocarbons are
toxic. Benzene itself is implicated as a cancer
causing chemical.
Aromatic Compounds in Nature and Health
Many aromatic compounds are common in nature and
in medicine.
CHO
COOH
COOCH3
CH3
CH3
CH3CHCH2
CHCOOH
OCH3
OH
Aspirin
Vanillin
Ibuprofen
Naming Aromatic Compounds
Aromatic compounds are named with benzene as the parent
chain. One side group is named in front of the name benzene.
- No number is needed for mono-substituted benzene since
all the ring positions are identical.
CH3
methylbenzene
(toluene)
Cl
chlorobenzene
Naming Aromatic Compounds
When two groups are attached to benzene, the ring is
numbered to give the lower numbers to the side
groups. The prefixes ortho (1,2), meta (1,3-) and para
(1,4-) are also used.
Cl
CH3
Cl
CH3
Cl
1,2-dimethylbenzene
1,3-dichlorobenzene
(ortho-dimethylbenzene)
(meta-dichlorobenzene)
CH3
1-chloro-4-methylbenzene
(para-chloromethylbenzene)
Some Common Names
Some substituted benzene rings also use a common
name. Then naming with additional more side groups
uses the ortho-, meta-, para- system.
CH3
OH
CH3
Cl
Toluene
(Methylbenzene)
meta-chlorotoluene
(meta-chloromethylbenzene)
phenol
(hydroxybenzene)
• Many substituted aromatic compounds have
common names in addition to their systematic
names.
Learning Check
Select the names for each structure:
Cl
a. Chlorocyclohexane
b. Chlorobenzene
c. 1-chlorobenzene
CH 3
CH 3
a. Meta-xylene
b. Meta-dimethylbenzene
c. 1,3-dimethylbenzene
New Attached Groups
• Phenyl
4-phenyl-1-butene
• Benzyl
Benzyl alcohol
• Nitro -NO2
Refer to your chart for order of
priority!
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
Organic Chemistry:
Functional Groups
Origin of organic compounds
• Naturally occurring organic compounds are
found in plants, animals, and fossil fuels
• All of these have a plant origin
• All of these rely on the “fixing” of C from CO2
• Synthetic organic compounds are derived
from fossil fuels or plant material
• Organic reactions often much slower
than inorganic reactions
–must break strong covalent bond
–trying to find new catalysts to use
• Substitution Reactions- an atom (or
group of atoms) replaces another
atom or group of atoms
Substitution Reactions
• A halogen (shown as “X”) can replace a
hydrogen to make a halocarbon:
R-H + X2  R-X + HX
• Sunlight is often a sufficient catalyst:
UV light
CH4 + Cl2 →
CH3Cl + HCl
SUBSTITUTION
SATURATED COMPOUNDS ONLY
ONE KIND OF ATOM OR GROUP
IS SUBSTITUTED WITH ANOTHER
KIND OF ATOM OR GROUP
PRODUCE HALIDES
C4H10 + Cl2 → C4H9Cl + HCl
TRY THESE!
C3H8 + I2 → C3H7I + HI
C7H16 + F2 → C7H15F + HF
Addition Reactions
• The carbon-carbon single bond is
not easy to break
• In double bonded alkenes, it is
easier to break a bond
• Addition reaction- substance is
added at the double or triple bond
location, after it is broken
Addition Reactions
• If a halogen is added in an addition
reaction, the result is a halocarbon
that is disubstituted - middle p. 734
• The addition of bromine is often used
as a test for saturation - p.734
• Addition of a hydrogen halide? -called
monosubstituted halocarbon
BE ABLE TO
DRAW AND
NAME
REACTANTS
AND PRODUCTS
CAN BE NATURAL OR SYNTHETIC
LARGE MOLECULES(POLYMERS) ARE MADE FROM
SMALLER MOLECULES CALLED MONOMERS.
• MONOMERS JOIN
BY DEHYDRATION
(DEHYDRATION
SYNTHESIS).
• I.E. POLYESTERS,
SILICONES,
NYLONS, SOME
PLASTICS
• OPENING OF
DOUBLE AND
TRIPLE BONDS TO
JOIN MONOMERS.
• I.E. VINYL PLASTICS
LIKE
POLYETHELENE
AND
POLYSTYRENE.
D. Polymers
•
Polymers – large chainlike molecules made from many small molecules called
monomers
– Simplest polymer – polyethylene
– Polyethylene results from addition polymerization.
D. Polymers
• Condensation polymerization – a small
molecule (often water) is released for each
addition
of a monomer to the polymer chain
– Nylon
• Copolymer – 2 different types of monomers combine to
form the chain
Functional Groups
• Most organic chemistry involves
substituents
–often contain O, N, S, or P
–also called “functional groups”they are the chemically functional
part of the molecule, and are the
non-hydrocarbon part
Functional Groups
• Functional group - a specific
arrangement of atoms in an organic
compound, that is capable of
characteristic chemical reactions.
–What is the best way to classify
organic compounds? By their
functional groups.
Introduction to Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
Functional Groups
• A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms with
characteristic chemical and physical properties. It is the
reactive part of the molecule.
• Most organic compounds have C—C and C—H bonds.
However, many organic molecules possess other structural
features:
 Heteroatoms—atoms other than carbon or hydrogen.
  Bonds—the most common  bonds occur in C—C and
C—O double bonds.
 These structural features distinguish one organic
molecule from another. They determine a molecule’s
geometry, physical properties, and reactivity, and
comprise what is called a functional group.
73
• Heteroatoms and  bonds confer reactivity on a particular
molecule.
Heteroatoms have lone pairs and create electron-deficient
sites on carbon.
 Bonds are easily broken in chemical reactions. A  bond
makes a molecule a base and a nucleophile.
Don’t think that the C—C and C—H bonds are unimportant. They form the
carbon backbone or skeleton to which the functional group is attached.
74
Biologically Important
Functional Groups
Group
Structure Compound Significance
Polar, forms H-bonds; some sugars
Hydroxyl
Alcohols
and amino acids Example: Ethanol
R OH
Polar, forms H-bonds;
sugars
Polar; some sugars
O some
Aldehydes
Example: Formaldehyde
R
C
and amino acids; Example:
Ethanol
H
Carbonyl
O some sugars
Polar;
Polar; some sugars
Ketones
Example: Acetone
Example:
Formaldehyde
R CR
Carboxylic
Polar;
some
sugars Polar,
acidic; fats and amino acids
O
Carboxyl
Example: Acetic acid
R CExample:
Acids
Acetone
OH
Polar, basic; amino acids
Polar, acidic; R
fats and
acids
H amino
Amino
Amines
Example: Tryptophan
N
H
Example: Acetic acid
Disulfide Bonds; some amino acids
Thiols
R SH
Disulfide Bonds;
some amino acids Example: Ethanethiol
Example: Ethanethiol
75
Functional Groups
Functional Groups
• The symbol “R” is used to
represent any carbon chains or
rings
Alcohols
• Alcohols - a class of organic
compounds with an -OH group
–The -OH functional group in alcohols
is called a “hydroxyl” group; thus ROH is the formula
• How is this different from the
hydroxide ion? (covalent bonding with the
carbon- not ionic with a metal like bases)
Alcohols
• Aliphatic alcohols classified into
categories according to the number of
R groups attached to the carbon with
the hydroxyl
–1 R group: primary alcohol
–2 R groups: secondary alcohol
–3 R groups: tertiary alcohol
Alcohols
• Both IUPAC and common names
• For IUPAC:
–drop the -e ending of the parent
alkane name; add ending of -ol,
number the position of -OH
–parent is the longest chain that
contains the carbon with the
hydroxyl attached.
Alcohols
• The hydroxyl is given the lowest
position number
• Alcohols containing 2, 3, and 4 of
the -OH substituents are named
diols, triols, and tetrols
respectively
Alcohols
• Common names:
–similar to halocarbons,
meaning name the alkyl group,
then followed by the word
alcohol
–One carbon alcohol = methyl
alcohol
Alcohols
• More than one -OH substituents are
called glycols (ethylene glycol?)
• Phenols - compounds in which a
hydroxyl group is attached directly to
an aromatic ring.
• Cresol is the common name of o, m,
and p isomers of methylphenol
Properties of Alcohols
• Much like water, alcohols are capable of
hydrogen bonding between molecules
–this means they will boil at a higher
temp. than alkanes and halocarbons
with a comparable number of atoms
Properties of Alcohols
• Alcohols are derivates of water; the OH comes from water, and thus are
somewhat soluble
• Alcohols of up to 4 carbons are soluble
in water in all proportions; more than
4 carbons are usually less soluble,
because the longer carbon chain is
more nonpolar
Properties of Alcohols
• Many aliphatic alcohols used in
laboratories, clinics, and industry
–Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) is
rubbing alcohol; used as antiseptic,
and a base for perfume, creams,
lotions, and other cosmetics
• Ethylene glycol (1,2-ethanediol) commonly sold as “antifreeze”
Properties of Alcohols
• Glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol) - used
as a moistening agent in
cosmetics, foods, and drugs; also a
component of fats and oils
• Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) used in the
intoxicating beverages; also an
important industrial solvent
Properties of Alcohols
• Denatured alcohol- means it has
been made poisonous by the addition
of other chemicals, often methyl
alcohol (methanol, or wood alcohol).
• As little as 10 mL of methanol has
been known to cause permanent
blindness, and 30 ml has resulted in
death!
Ethers
• A class of organic compounds in which
oxygen is bonded to 2 carbon groups:
R-O-R is formula
• Naming? The two R groups are
alphabetized, and followed by ether
• Two R groups the same? Use the
prefix di-
Ethers
• Diethyl ether is the one commonly
called just “ether”
–was the first reliable general
anesthetic
–dangerous- highly flammable, also
causes nausea
• ethers are fairly soluble in water
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Review:
–alcohol has an oxygen bonded to a
carbon group and a hydrogen
–ether has an oxygen bonded to two
carbon groups
• An oxygen can also be bonded to a
single carbon by a double bond
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The C=O group is called the “carbonyl
group”
–it is the functional group in both
aldehydes and ketones
• Aldehydes - carbonyl group always
joined to at least one hydrogen
(meaning it is always on the end!)
A. Aldehydes and Ketones
– Aldehyde – carbonyl group always appears on the end of the
hydrocarbon chain and has at least one H atom bonded to the carbonyl
group
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Ketones - the carbon of the
carbonyl group is joined to two
other carbons (meaning it is
never on the end)
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Naming?
–Aldehydes: identify longest chain
containing the carbonyl group, then the
-e ending replaced by -al, such as
methanal, ethanal, etc.
Ketones: longest chain w/carbonyl, then
new ending of -one; number it?
propanone, 2-pentanone, 3-pentanone
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Neither can form intermolecular
hydrogen bonds, thus a much lower b.p.
than corresponding alcohols
• wide variety have been isolated from
plants and animals; possible fragrant
odor or taste; many common names
Aldehydes and Ketones
•
•
•
•
Benzaldehyde
Cinnamaldehyde
Vanillin
Methanal (the common name is:
formaldehyde)
–40% in water is formalin, a
preservative
Aldehydes and Ketones
• Propanone (common: acetone) is a
good solvent; miscible with water
in all proportions
• why is it a good substance used in
nail-polish removers? (a powerful
solvent-able to dissolve both polar
& nonpolar)
The Carboxylic Acids…
• Also have a carbonyl group (C=O), but
is also attached to a hydroxyl group (OH) = “carboxyl” group
• general formula: R-COOH
–weak acids (ionize slightly)
• Named by replacing -e with -oic and
followed by the word acid
• methanoic acid; ethanoic acid
Carboxylic Acids
• Abundant and widely distributed in
nature, many having a Greek or Latin
word describing their origin
–acetic acid (ethanoic acid) from
acetum, meaning vinegar
–many that were isolated from fats
are called fatty acids
C. Carboxylic Acids and Esters
The Esters…
• General formula: RCOOR
• Derivatives of the carboxylic acids, in
which the -OH from the carboxyl group
is replaced by an -OR from an alcohol:
carboxylic acid + alcohol  ester + water
• many esters have pleasant, fruity odorsbanana, pineapple, perfumes
C. Carboxylic Acids and Esters
•
Esters – a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to form an ester and a
water molecule
– General formula
C. Carboxylic Acids and Esters
•
To name esters
– Use the alkyl name from the alcohol followed by the acid name, where
the –ic ending is replaced by –ate.
isopropylethanoate
Esters
• Although polar, they do not form
hydrogen bonds (reason: there is
no hydrogen bonded to a highly
electronegative atom!)
–thus, much lower b.p. than the
hydrogen-bonded carboxylic
acids they came from
Esters
• Can be prepared from a
carboxylic acid and an alcohol;
usually a trace of mineral acid
added as catalyst (because acids
are dehydrating agents)
Esters
• Naming? It has 2 words:
–1st: alkyl attached to single
bonded oxygen from alcohol
–2nd: take the acid name, remove
the -ic acid, add -ate
Organic Nomenclature
Suffixes/Meanings I
Alkane (saturated hydrocarbon)
Alkene (one double bond)
Alkyne (one triple bond)
organic amine (amphetamine,
caffeine, cocaine, morphine,
heroin)
• -one Ketone (acetone, nail polish
remover)
•
•
•
•
-ane
-ene
-yne
-ine
Organic Nomenclature
Suffixes/Meanings II
• -ase
Enzymes ( protein catalysts in
biochemical reactions)
•
•
•
•
-ose
-ol
-al
-ate
• -ade
Sugars
(glucose, sucrose)
Alcohols
Aldehydes (formaldehyde)
Esters
(many flavors and
fragrances)
Something to drink