Transcript CFS202_Chapter 11-14

Chapter 11
Emotion
Temperament
Attachment
• Bonding
(one way)
parents “fall in love” with infants
• Attachment (two ways)
desire of proximity
mutual affection
older infants
Emotional Expression
• Facial expression  emotions
Age and Emotions
Birth
Contentment
Disgust
Distress
Interest
2-7m
Anger
Fear
Joy
Sadness
Surprise
12-24m
Embarrassment
Envy
Guilt
Pride
Shame
Age and Emotions
Birth
Contentment
Disgust
Distress
Interest
Basic
May be
biologically
programmed
2-7m
Anger
Fear
Joy
Sadness
Surprise
Basic
Emerge at the
same age (health)
Embarrassment
Envy
Guilt
Pride
Shame
Complex
12-24m
Interpreted
similarly in all
culture
self-conscious
self-evaluation
Sense of self,
Cognitive ability
to evaluate
against standards
or rules
Parents’ Influence on Emotions
Parents
• Accentuate negative
Parents
• Positive to success
Children
• Shame after failure
• Little pride after
success
Children
• More pride
• Less shame
Socialization & Self-regulation
• Emotional display rules
Culturally defined rules, which emotions be
expressed under which circumstances
Display more pleasant faces > unpleasant ones
America:
peak of delight
Central Africa: calm, contended
Regulate Emotions
First few months
6m
11m/12m
18m-24m
2 year
preschool
Caregiver regulate
Rock, stroke, sing, provide pacifier
Turn body away, seek objects to suck
Boys > girls, fuss, cry
Rock themselves
Chew on objects
Move away
Control the actions of people and objects
Distract themselves
Turn to caregivers, instead of express anger
or fear
Talkative and discuss their feelings
Companions: help to distract and understand
Suppress
• Regulate
Maintain
Intensifying
•
1.
2.
3.
Parents maintain and intensify
Sympathize
Feel guilty
pride
Temperament
• Easy (regular routines, good natured, adaptive
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•
to novelty)
Difficult (irregular, adapt slowly, respond
negatively and intensely)
Slow to warm up (inactive and moody, mild
passive resistance to new routines and
experiences)
• “Goodness-of-fit” model
(child temperament and parenting style)
Patient, sensitive, allow leisure pace
Impatient, angry, demanding, forceful
Temperament
Six dimensions
1. Fearful distress (wary, distress, withdraw in
new)
2. Irritable distress (fussy, cry, distress when
frustrated)
3. Positive affect (smile, laugh, approach,
cooperate)
4. Activity level (gross motor, kick, crawl)
5. Attention span/persistence (length of time to
focus)
6. Rhythmicity (regularity, predictability of eating,
sleeping, bowel functioning)
What influences temperament?
• Heredity
• Environment (share positive temperament,
smiling, sociability, soothability; not share
negative temperament, irritability, fearfulness )
• Culture (U.S. doesn’t encourage shy,
reserved)
Attachment
• Synchronized routines
Generally harmonious interactions between
two persons in which participants adjust
their behaviors in response to the partner’s
feelings and behaviors.
Growth of Primary Attachments
Asocial Phase
0-6w
Indiscriminate A
6w-6/7m
Social, nonsocial stimuli  favorable
reaction (few protest)
Social > nonsocial stimulation
Protest (put them down, leave them alone)
Like human company, anyone (include strangers)
Specific A
7m-9m
Multiple A
9m-18m
Particular caregiver
Follow along behind, stay close, wary of strangers
Secure base (secure attachmentexplore)
Other people (fathers, siblings,
grandparents, regular babysitter)
Theories of Attachment
Early
• Psychoanalytic Theory
• Learning Theory
• Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Contemporary
• Ethological Theory (John Bowlby)
Origins: imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)
preadapted characteristic
kewpie doll effect
Attachment-related Fears of Infancy
• Stranger Anxiety
• Separation Anxiety
Assess Attachment Security
• Strange situation (1-2 years old)
• Attachment Q-set (AQS) (>2 y)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Secure attachment
Resistant attachment
Avoidant attachment
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Mother Mother
present depart
Secure 65% Actively Visible
explore upset
Resistant 10% stay close, Very
explore distressed
little
Avoidant 20%
Mother
return
Greet
warmly
Ambivale
nt, near
her, angry
strangers
Outgoing
Quite
wary of
Little
Sociable,
distress,
Or avoid,
ignore
ignore
Disorganize/ •Most Stressed, most insure
disoriented 5% •When reunited, act dazed and freeze or
move close then abruptly move away as the
mother draw near
Factors
• Caregiving hypothesis
• Temperamental hypothesis
Easy/difficult/slow-to-warm-up
Combined influences
• Caregiving  secure vs. insure
• Temperament  type of insure (resistant,
avoid, disorganized/disoriented)
Factors
Maternal
Child
• Illness
• Depression
• Child maltreatment
• Premature illness
• Psychological
disorders
Genetic contributions < environmental influences
Outcomes
2y
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Better problem solvers
More complex and creative in symbolic play
More positive emotions
More attractive to toddlers as playmates
• Social leader
• Initiate play activities (Curious, self-directed, eager to
learn)
15y
• Better social skills
16y
• Better peer relations
• More close friends
Secure > insecure
Working Models of Self and Others
• Internal working models (Interpret events,
form expectations about character of human relationships)
Insensitive
Sensitive
dependable
Neglectful negative model
Responsive (positive model)
Abusive
• Ability to elicit attention and
comfort when they need it
• I’m lovable.
• I’m unworthy or
loathsome.
• Expect positive
experiences in life
• Expect and tend to recall
the more negative events
Parents’ Working Models and
Attachment
Positive working models
• Sensitive
• Responsive
• Nonintrusive
• Once formed early in life, working models may
stabilize, become an aspect of personality
Is Attachment history destiny?
• Insure -- offset
father
Grandparent
Day-care
In sum, working models are cognitive
representations of self, others, close
emotional relationships
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40% full-time by parents
21% other relatives
4% at home by a sitter
14% day-care homes
31% large day-care centers
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Dual-career
Single-parents
Blended families
Adoptive families
Donor insemination (DI) families
Chapter 12
Self-concept
Self-esteem
Achievement Motivation
Identity
Self-concept
• One’s perception of one’s unique attributes or
traits
Infancy
• Personal agency (recognition that one can be the cause
of an event)
• Self-recognition (recognize oneself in a mirror or a
photograph)
• Present self
• Extended self
• contributors
Self-esteem
• Evaluation of one’s worth as a person
High
• Satisfied with the type of person
• Recognize strong points and weak points (hoping
to overcome)
• Positive about the characteristics and
competencies
Low
• View with less favorable light
• Dwell on perceived inadequacies
Components
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•
•
•
•
Scholastic competence
Social acceptance
Physical appearance
Athletic competence
Behavioral conduct
Stable?
Decline
• Elementary
• Middle school
• High school
• Erikson: erosion in self-worth
Life outcomes
• Good things happen high self-esteem
• High self-esteem  good things happen
Social contributors
• Parenting style
Sensitive positive working model
• Peer influence
social comparison
• Cultural, Ethnicity
Collectivist < individualistic
Achievement Motivation
• Achievement motivation
Willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks
and to meet high standards of accomplishment
• Mastery motivation
Inborn motive to explore, understand, and control
one’s environment
Early Origins of Achievement Motivation
1y-5y, tasks (hammer pegs into pegboards, work puzzles, knock
down plastic pins with a bowling ball)
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Before Age 2 - Joy in Mastery
Do not call others’ attention
Not bothered by failure
Shift goals and attempt to master other toys
No evaluation
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Near Age 2 - Approval-seeking
Anticipate others’ evaluation
Seek recognition for success (smile, hold heads and chins up high)
Expect disapproval for failure (turn away from experimenter)
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Around Age 3 – Use of Standards
React independently
Have adopted objective standards
Experience real pride (rather than mere pleasure)
Experience real shame (rather than mere disappointment)
Achievement Motivation during Middle
Childhood and Adolescence
Home influences
•
Quality of attachments (curiosity, self-reliance, eagerness to solve problems)
•
Character of home environment (HOME Inventory, intellectually
stimulating)
Promote intrinsic orientation to achievement (opposed to achieving for external
incentives such as grades)
•
Child-rearing practices
1.
2.
3.
•
Scaffold  master challenges more comfortable and motivated in achievement
Direct achievement training (set high standards, encourage do well)
Patterns of praise, criticism and punishment
Authoritative parenting (warm, firm, democratic)
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•
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Uninvolved
Offer little guidance
Highly controlling
Nag continuously about homework
Offer tangible bribes for good grades
Harp incessantly about bad ones
Achievement Motivation during
Middle Childhood and Adolescence
Peer groups
• Rejected by peers
• Parents’ values  seek peers with similar
values
Culture
• American: tolerant of failure
• Chinese: ashamed of failure
Achievement Attribution
• Achievement attribution
Causal explanation, how to interpret success
and failures
• Achievement expectancies
Types of Achievement Attribution
Internal cause
External cause
Stable cause
Ability
Task
difficulty
Unstable cause
Effort
Luck
Age differences
• Before Age 7: rosy optimism
Incremental view of ability (ability is changeable)
Ability can be improved through increased
effort and practice
• 8-12 y: Distinguish effort from ability
Entity view of ability (ability is stable)
Dweck’s Learned-Helplessness Theory
• Positive in the face of failure
• Give up
• Mastery orientated (believe high ability, try harder)
• Learned-helplessness orientation (attribute to ability)
How does it develop?
Parents, teachers
• Succeed: praise for working hard
• Fail: criticize lack of ability
Forging an Identity
Identity: a firm and coherent sense of who I
am ,where I am heading, and where I fit into society
• Identity diffusion (haven’t thought about)
• Identity foreclosure (no crisis)
• Identity moratorium (actively ask questions and seek
answers)
• Identity achievement (have resolved, make
commitments to particular goals, beliefs, and values.)
Developmental Trends in Identity
Formation
• Erikson
identity crisis, early adolescence – 15-18 y,
overly optimistic
• Philip Meilman
12-18y: most are diffused or foreclosed
=>21y: most are moratorium or achieved
Reopen: divorce
How painful is identity formation?
• Moratorium (no stress)
feel much better about themselves and their futures
• Achievement (high self-esteem)
Less self-conscious or preoccupied with personal concerns
Prerequisite for establishing a truly intimate relationships
• Diffusion /Long-term failure to establish one
(crisis)
Depressed, lack self-confidence
Negative identity (delinquent, loser)
Influences on Identification Formation
• Cognitive (think hypothetically)
Formal-operational thought, reason logically, imagine and contemplate
• Parenting
Neglect, reject, distant from no opportunity to identify respected parental
figuresdiffuse
Controlling  never question parental authority foreclosure
Solid base of affection, considerable freedom, a sense of closeness and mutual respect
in family discussion moratorium/achievment
• Scholastic (attending college)
Yes: career, occupation. No: political, religious
• Social-cultural
Industrialized vs. nonindustrialized (sons of farmersfarmers)
Ethnic identity
Identification with an ethnic group and its values,
traditions
Stress
• Apple: Native American
• Coconut: Hispanic A
• Banana: Asian A
• Oreo: African A
• Cross-ethnic adoptee
Ethnic identity
What parents can help?
• Teach cultural traditions and foster ethnic pride
• Prepare to deal with prejudices and value conflicts
• Be warm and supportive confidants
What schools and community can help?
• Promote understanding and appreciation of
diversity
• Ensure educational and economic opportunities
extended to all
Knowing about others
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Trait-like inferences (nice/mean)
Behavioral comparison phase
Psychological constructs phase
Psychological comparison phase
Knowing about others
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Social cognition
Piaget: cognitive-developmental approach
Preoperational:
Concrete:
• Robert Selman: role taking analysis
• Assume others’ perspective, understand his
thoughts, feelings, motives and intentions
• Social experiences
• Disagree friends > disagree acquaintances
• Equal-status contacts among peers
• Critical, explain the rationales for their own points of
view
• Settle arguments
• Sibling disputes
• Points of
• Goal and feelings
• Brain storm
Chapter 13
Sex
Gender
• Sex (physical)
Chromosomes, physical manifestation,
hormonal influences
• Gender (social, cultural identity)
Gender socialization
• Infants
• Color
• “big guy”, “tiger”/ “sugar”, “sweetie”
• Clothing, toys, hairstyles, play
Gender typing
• Gender typing
Acquire gender identity, culturally
appropriate motives, values, behaviors
• Biological forces
• Social experiences
• Cognitive development
Gender-role standard
• Gender-role standard
Society expect males and females to behave
Expressive role
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•
Cooperative
Kind
Nurturant
Sensitive to others’ needs
Instrumental role
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•
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Dominant
Independent
Assertive
Competitive
Goal oriented
Physical differences
• Men: taller, heavier, more muscular
• Women: hardier (live longer)
Psychological differences
• Verbal ability (girls)
• Visual/Spatial (boys)
• Mathematical (adolescent boys: arithmetic
reasoning)
• Aggression (boys: physically and verbally
aggressive, girls: covert forms of hostility, snub,
ignore, undermine relationships or social status)
• Others (activity level, fear, timidity and risk
taking, developmental vulnerability, emotional
expressivity/sensitivity, compliance, self-esteem)
Group (5%) & Individuals
• More psychological similar than they are different.
• Chinese American boys =Chinese American girls
• European American boys-European American girls= 4050 points
Cultural Myths with no basis in fact
Females
• More
• Less
sociable
suggestible
illogical
analytical
achievement oriented
Selective attention (assimilate/ignore)
Culture myth contributes to sex differences
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Home influences (parents)
• Belief
• Attribute
• Internalize
Scholastic influences (teachers)
2005
1976
Law degree Medical degree Engineer & science
49%
47%
44%
18%
28%
10%
Development of gender-typing
• Gender concept (Gender identity, unchanging)
4m: match male and female voices with faces
1y: photographs
2-3y: mommy, daddy, boy, girl
2.5-3y: label themselves
3-5y: clothing, hairstyle  sex
5-7y: unchanging. Firm, future-oriented identity
• Gender-role stereotypes (idea what males and
females are supposed to do)
• Gender-typed patterns of behaviors
Gender-role stereotypes
•
2.5y: some knowledge of gender-role stereotypes
(Girls: talk a lot, never hit, often need help, like to play with dolls, like to help mothers
with chores such as cooking and cleaning)
•
Preschool, early grade-school: more about toys, activities,
achievement domains
•
Grade-school: psychological domains
•
10y-11y: personality traits
Women: weak, emotional, soft-hearted, sophisticated, and affectionate
Men: ambitious, assertive, aggressive, dominating, and cruel
3-7y: rigid and intolerant, chauvinists, blanket rules, not to be violated,
exaggerate stereotypes to “get them cognitively clear”
8-9y: flexible, less chauvinistic, although they may not approve
(cultural influences, Taiwanese less accepting gender-role violations by boys )
Adolescence: gender intensification (parents, peers, date)
Development of gender-typed behavior
• Gender segregation (same-sex playmates, the other sex,
out-group)
Why?
Theories
• Evolutionary theory
• Money and Ehrhardt’s biosocial theory
• Social learning theory
• Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory
• Martin and Halverson’s Gender schema theory
• Integrative theory (the best)
Evolutionary theory
• ensure gene survive
• Men (provide resources (food, protection)competitive,
assertive, aggressive: instrumental role)
• Women (raise childrenkind, gentle, nurturant: expressive role)
• Essentialist bias (biological  what you will become)
Criticism
• Explain what are consistent across cultures, but largely ignore
differences that are limited to particular cultures or historical
periods
• Social roles hypothesis (psychological sex differences)
1.socially assigned roles, provider, homemaker
2.socialization
Money and Ehhardt’s Biosocial theory
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•
Y chromosometestes secrete testosterone  penis and scrotum
No Y chromosome ovaries no testosterone (insensitive to testosterone)labia and clitoris
Biological influences (birth, puberty, 50% explain differences in masculine selfconcept, 0-20% feminine)
•
Genetic influences
Timing of puberty effect: mature late/slow maturation  better visual/spatial
previous involvement + self concept  spatial performance
•
Hormonal influences
androgenized femalestomboy, play with boys, prefer boys’ toys, homosexual, bisexual, spatia
dose-related effect
Social labeling influences
•
Cultural influences (modify or reverse biological influences, before age 3)
Three tribes in New Guinea
1.
2.
3.
Arapesh: both men and women, cooperative, nonaggressive, sensitive to others’ needs
Mundugumor: both, assertive, aggressive, emotionally unresponsive
Tchambuli: males, passive, emotionally dependent, and socially sensitive; females, dominant,
independent, and assertive
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Females Exposed to Androgens
(XX)
Testicular feminization syndrome (TFS)
Androgen Insensitivity
(XY)
A Psychobiosocial viewpoint
• Diane Halpern (1997), psychobiosocial model
• Nature + nurture jointly
• Prenatal: hormones  organization of brain
(boys: receptive to spatial activities; girls: quiet verbal exchanges)
• Others’ beliefs (expose boys with a richer array of spatial
experiences, expose girls with verbal play activities)
• Early experiences influence the neural pathways laid down in
their immature and highly plastic brains 
Boys: receive more spatial experiences develop a richer array of neural
pathways in areas of the brain’s right hemisphere that serve spatial
function, which, in turn, make them more receptive to spatial
activities and to acquiring spatial skills
Girls:
Criticism
• Fail to specify precise social processes
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
• Phallic stage (3-6y)
Satisfy sex instinct by fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous
desire for the parent of the other sex.
• Identification (emulate same-sex parent)
• Castration anxiety (father will castrate a boy as punishment
for his rivalrous conduct)
• Oedipus complex (boys’ incestuous desire for mothers and a
jealous and hostile rivalry with fathers)
• Electra complex (girls’ envy for father possessing a penis and
would share with the valuable organ)
Criticism:
• 4-6y children are ignorant about differences between male and female
genitalia
• Boys identify fathers who are warm, nurturant rather than punitive and
theatening
Social learning theory
•
Direct tuition (teach, reinforce, punish)
20m-24m
Girls: dance, dress up, follow parents around, ask for help, play
with dolls/ discourage: manipulate objects, run, jump,
climb
Boys: blocks, trucks, push-and-pull toys/ reprimand: doll play,
seek help
1.
2.
3.
Label themselves as boys or girls
Toy and activity preference
Understand gender stereotypes
(Reinforce by parents, siblings, same-sex peers)
Social learning theory
• Observational learning
Observe which is for boys and which is for girls
and imitate same-sex models
(peers, teachers, older siblings, media personalities,
mothers, fathers)
Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental theory
• Understand
• Actively socialize themselves
• Basic gender identity (boy or girl, by age 3)
• Gender stability (boysmen, girlswomen)
• Gender consistency (despite activity, appearance)
Support: 20 different cultures, same stage sequence
boys with gender consistency  prefer gender stereotypic play
Criticism: understanding ≠ gender typing
Before 3y: learned stereotypes, preference
Rigidity -- gender stability
Flexible – gender consistency
Gender Schema Theory
• Gender schemas (organized sets of beliefs and
expectations about males and females that guide
information processing)
• In-group/out-group schema (mannerisms,
roles, activities)
• Own-sex schema (knowledge or plans)
An Integrative Theory
prenatal
Genitalia  others
reaction
0-3y
Parents label boy or girl Social learning
Encourage, discourage (differential reinforcement)
Basic gender identity Psychobiosocial
3-6y
Seek information
Motivated to perform
Gender schema
7y-puberty
Gender consistency
Less on schema, more
on same-sex model
Reexamine
Form an adult gender
identity
Cognitive-developmental
> puberty
Biosocial/
psychobiosocial
Biosocial/psychobiosocial
Social learning
Gender schema
Cognitive-developmental
Androgynous
Masculinity
femininity
Androgynous (both)
Assertive & sensitive, independent & understanding?
Does exist, 30%
Masculine gender-typed
Feminine gender-typed
Undifferentiated (lacks both)
Psychological Androgynous
Femininity
High
High
Masculinity
Low
Androgynous
Masculine gender-typed
Feminine gender-typed
Undifferentiated (lacks both)
Low
Gender-role inventory for grade-school children
Personality trait
Item
Masculine
Dominant
Authoritative
Self-sufficient
Ambitious
Masculine
I can control a lot of the kids in my class.
I am a leader among my friends.
I can take care of myself
I am willing to work hard to get what I want.
I like to do what boys and men do.
Feminine
Compassionate
Cheerful
Loyal
Nurturant
Feminine
I care about what happens to others.
I am a cheerful person.
I am faithful to my friends.
I like babies and small children a lot.
I like to do what girls and women do.
Advantages to being androgynous
1. Behave more flexible
2. Highly adaptable (Adjust their behaviors to the
demands of the situation at hand)
3. Enjoy high self-esteem (Perceived as more
likable and adjusted)
4. Men still feel quite masculine; women still
feel feminine
Should we strive for androgyny?
• Not too hard. (peer rejection, low self-esteem)
• Typical own
sex + little cross-gender
• Teach children that biological sex is
unimportant outside the domain of reproduction
• Delay exposure to gender stereotypes
Encourage cross-sex play as well as same-sex play
Divide household chores more equitably
• Change attitudes before 3 years old
Chapter 14
Aggression
Altruism
Moral
Definition
• ________unprovoked and intentional harming
• ________self concern for the welfare of
others, willingness to act on the concern
• ________personal commitment to abide by
rules, do the “right” things even when no one
else is present
Moral, aggression, altruism, which one?
• Hostile aggression (ultimate goal)
• Instrumental aggression (a means,
objects, space, privileges)
Developmental trends in Aggression
• 2-3y: physically retaliate (by hitting or kicking)
• 3-5: physical , verbal , (tease, tattle, name calling, toys,
instrumental)
• Toddlerhood
70% low in aggression
27% moderate, and decline with age
3% high, stable
Retaliatory aggression (elicit by real or imaginary
provocation)
Sex differences
• Testosterone
• Socialization
1y, 2y: girls > boys
2.5y-3y: gender-typing, steered boys and girls
in different directions
• Boys: overt, teenage: indirectly (theft,
truancy, substance abuse, sexual misconduct)
• Girls: covert, teenage: more subtle and
malicious relational aggression
Aggression
• Proactive aggressors (instrumental):
pay off in tangible benefits
• Reactive aggressors (hostile,
retaliatory)
Stable? Yes.
• Toddler  5y
• 3y  10y
• 8y  30y
Dodge’s Social InformationProcessing Theory of Aggression
1. Encode 2. interpret 3. Formulate a goal (to resolve the situation)
 4. Generate possible strategies 5. evaluate and select 6. enact a
response
Reactive aggressors: ambiguous circumstances, hostile
attributional bias
• others are hostile to me
• Search for and find cues compatible with this expectancy
Proactive aggressors: carefully formulate an instrumental goal
• I’ll teach careless peers to be more careful around me
• Aggressive response is most effective, quite happy and confident
Passive victims
• Socially withdrawn
• Sedentary
• Physically weak
• Reluctant to fight back
• Do little to invite the hostilities
(close and overprotective relationship with their mothers)
Provocative victims
• Oppositional
• Restless
• Hot-tempered, often irritate peers
(Physically abused, victimized at home)
Intervention
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Self-esteem
Social skills
Supportive friendships
Popularity and Aggression
• Popularity (well-known, accepted,
attractiveness, athleticism, desirable possession,
not necessarily well liked)
• Overt, relation aggression  popularity
Culture and Subcultural Influences
• Use weapons to hunt  rare interpersonal aggression
• Peace-loving societies  retreat to inaccessible regions when invaded
Gebusi of New Guinea
• combative, emotionally unresponsive to others’ needs
• murder rate > 50 times
United States (aggressive)
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Rape
Homicide
Assault
Armed robbery
• Lower SES (larger urban areas) > middle class
(social class differences in child rearing, endorse aggressive solutions, live
complex, stressful lives)
Coercive Home Environments 
Aggression
Parental conflicts child distress  hostile and
aggressive interactions with siblings and peers
• Emotionally unavailable parents
• Decreased physiological reactivity  difficult to acquire
social skills  aggression
Families as social systems
• Coercive home environment (aggressive or otherwise
antisocial tactics to cope with aversive experiences)
• Negative reinforcer (whine, yell, scream, tease, or hit 
antagonist stop. Cause bad actions recur.)
Controlling Aggression
Nonaggressive environments
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Toys (aggressive)
Space
Scarce resources
Violent television, video games
Eliminate payoffs
• Proactive aggressors: forceful strategy, teach alternative responses
(share), eliminate reinforcing consequences
• Insure attachment and try to get attention:
Not serious  Incompatible-response technique (ignore aggression, reinforce
sharing and cooperation)
Very serious  time-out technique
Social-cognitive
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Regulate anger
Empathize
Take others’ perspectives (look for nonhostile cues)
Generate nonaggressive solutions to conflict
Altruism
• Altruism (selfless concern for the welfare of
others through prosocial behaviors)
• Prosocial behavior (benefit others, share,
comfort, rescue, cooperation, make others feel
good by complimenting them)
• Affective explanations (discipline that focuses
a child’s attention on the harm or distress)
Development of Altruism
• Origins
• Sex differences
Social-cognitive and affective
• Role-taking skills
• Prosocial moral reasoning
Empathy (ability to experience the emotions of others)
• sympathetic empathic arousal (sympathy, compassion), selforientated distress (personal discomfort, distress)
• Socialization (1. modeling 2. affectively orientated discipline )
• Age trends (role-taking skills)
• Felt-responsibility hypothesis (how empathy promote altruism,
reflect on altruistic norms, feel obligation to help distressed others)
Cultural, Social Influences
3-10y
• Kenya
• Mexico
• Philippines
• Okinawa
• India
• United States
Nonindustrialized
altruism
industrialized
Large families: contribute to the family welfare
America: few family maintenance activities
Collectivist: suppress individualism (group goals vs. competition, indivual)
Who raises altruistic children?
Reinforce altruism
Likable, respected adults promote (not bribe)
Practicing and preaching altruism
Observe charitable or helpful models
Who raises altruistic children?
1. Highly altruistic parent
2. Parental reaction to harmdoing
• Nonpunitive, affective explanations (not Punitive,
forceful ways)
• rational
Morality
• Distinguish Right/wrong
• Act on this distinguish
• Pride/guilt, shame
• Internalization (milestone)
Adopt others’ attributes or standards as one’s own
Morality - 3 components
• Moral affective (emotional, guilt, concern)
• Moral cognitive (moral reasoning)
• Moral behavioral
Freud’s Theory of Morality
• Boys: Oedipus complex, internalize father’s
moral standard
• Girls: Electra complex, internalize mother’s
moral standard
Newer Ideas
Secure attachment warm, mutually responsive
relationship (not fear-provoking) 
committed compliance
• Highly motivated to embrace the parent’s agenda, comply with
her rules and requests
• Sensitive to a parent’s emotional signals of wrong/right
• Internalize parental reactions to their triumphs and transgression,
pride, shame, guilt
Aloof, insensitive  situational compliance
Piaget
Premodal period Little concern for or awareness of rules
Heteronomous
morality
5-10y
God, the police, parents, scared, unalterable
Consequences > intention
Expiatory punishment
Immanent justice (invariable punished)
Autonomous
morality
10-11y
Be challenged, changed with the consent
Be violated in the service of human needs (a
driver can speed during medical emergency)
Intent
How to punish? Reciprocal punishment
Violation often go undetected and
unpunished
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
development (3 levels, 6 stages)
Preconventional
morality
Stage 1 Punishment
Stage 2 Reward
Conventional
morality
Stage 3 Please others (good boy)
Stage 4 Laws
Postconventional
morality
Stage 5 Negotiate to solve conflicts
Stage 6 self-chosen standards
Bandura & Walter Mischel
Reinforcement
Punishment
Observational learning
Doctrine of specificity
Specific to situation rather than a stable character trait
Resist Temptation
Reinforce a moral conduct
• Warm, accepting parents, + Praise for behaving well
• Punishment
Inhibitory control (ability to resist temptation)
Firm (not mild) punishments, administered immediately (not later)
and consistently by a warm (not an aloof) disciplinarian +
cognitive rationale
Internalized self-controls vs. external surveillance
Fear of detection and punishment is not enough to persuade children to resist temptation.
Self-restraint largely depends on what’s in children’s heads, not the amount of fear, not the
uneasiness in their guts
• Moral self-concept training (label as “good”, “honest”, so children
will feel guilt or remorse)
• Social modeling (1. model clearly verbalize. 2. rationale match child’s
customary level ) let older children serve as a model
Who raises children who are morally
mature?
• Love withdrawal (attention, affection, approval)
• Power assertion (superior power, spanking, withhold
privileges)
• Induction (nonpunitive, explain why, suggest how to repair)
• “That’s it! No movie for you this Saturday.”
• “How could you? Get away! I can’t bear to look at you.”
• “Tomeka, look how scared Pokey is. You could have set him on fire,
and you know how sad we’d all be if he was burned.”
Which discipline is effective?
Only Induction foster 3 aspects of morality
• Moral em________
• Moral rea________
• Moral be_________
Why?
• Cognitive standards, rationale to evaluate
• Help to sympathize, talk about pride, guilt, shame
• Explain how to resist temptation, how to make up for
a transgression
Child’s-Eye view of discipline
1.
2.
×
×
Induction
Physical punishment
Love withdrawal
Permissive nonintervention
Induction backed by occasional use of power
assertion