Transcript Virtue Ethics - WordPress.com

Ethics
1. What can you remember about the theories you
studied last year?
2. Can you think of any key terms or thinkers?
Write them down on your whiteboards
In Comparison…
So far we’ve looked at:
There is also:
Teleological Theories
Theories like
Utilitarianism or
situation ethics that look
at the desirable end or
result of an action.
Also known as
consequentialist ethics.
Deontological Theories
Theories like Kantian
ethics or divine command
theory (“what God says”)
that look for independent
rules or duties to dictate
moral action.
What is morally good is to
do with the characteristics
of the action itself, not the
result.
1.
2.
What are the advantages
of teleological views?
What are the problems for
teleological views?
A New/Old Kind of Theory
Normative ethical theories you have
looked at so far have been either
teleological or deontological. But there is
a third way, going back to Aristotle, which
concentrates on the character of the
agent.
Rather than proposing an answer to the
question “which moral actions should I
pursue and which should I avoid?”, virtue
ethics, often labelled as ‘aretaic ethics’
(from the Greek for ‘excellent’), focuses
on defining which character traits I should
practise in order to become a moral
human being.
It concentrates on ‘being’ rather than
doing – it does not ask ‘What shall I do?’,
but rather ‘What sort of person should I
become?’
Why might this be a
better approach to
ethics than the other
views we’ve discussed?
Aristotle Who?
• Aristotle lived in Ancient Greece
between 384 and 322 BC.
• He was a philosopher who wrote at
length about science and the
natural world as well as about
ethics.
• He based his conclusions on
observation. For instance, he learnt
about biological development by
opening fertilised chicken eggs at
various stages and describing the
state of the organs and tissues
inside.
• He used these same methods to
investigate the “practical sciences”
of ethics and politics.
• He was often in conflict with his
teacher Plato who favoured a more
metaphysical world view.
Ethical
Theories
Teleological
Virtue
Deontological
Ends
Character
Rules
Consequences
Habits
Absolutes
Calculation
Living
Obedience
Action
Habit of character
Agent-Centered
Action
To grasp Virtue Ethics we must understand Aristotle's idea of cause, these are his
idea of how to explain or understand something in the world fully:
The Material Cause
The material out of which the thing exists…
The Formal Cause
A form in which the thing is arranged…
Elevated
Surface
Wood
The Efficient Cause
The Final Cause
The ‘mover’ that causes the thing to be or
happen…
The purpose for which the thing exists…
Carpenter
For placing
things on
What are the four
causes of these
objects?
The Material Cause
The material out of which the thing exists…
The Formal Cause
A form in which the thing is arranged…
The Efficient Cause
The Final Cause
The ‘mover’ that causes the thing to be or
happen…
The purpose for which the thing exists…
For our purposes we can focus in on the
final two causes, efficient (the action that
shapes something or creates the thing)
and final (it’s ultimate function or
purpose).
You don’t need to worry about the others.
What is the efficient cause of a human?
What is the final cause of a human?
In Aristotles way of
thinking, everything
(both every action and
every object) has it’s
meaning and a
PURPOSE (final cause).
How well something
fits it’s PURPOSE
defines how GOOD it is.
What is the PURPOSE (final
cause) of a clothes peg?
How GOOD are these clothes
pegs at fulfilling that purpose?
How GOOD are these clothes
pegs?
Aristotle believed that the ultimate
purpose (the final cause) of human
action is EUDAIMONIA.
EUDAIMONIA is usually translated as
happiness, but it isn’t about feeling
happy, it’s about THRIVING or
FLOURISHING.
Eudaimonia is achieved when humans
fulfil their function perfectly.
But how? What is our efficient cause?
Thriving is often a
term used to
describe plants. A
plant is “thriving if
it is successful in all
it’s aspects” – a
human might
“thrive” in a similar
way.
Write this down: “I am sitting
in lesson in order to…”
When you have written that
down, add the next “In order
to…”
Keep adding “in order to” until
you can’t go any further.
Was Aristotle right about the
purpose of our lives?
I am sitting in lesson
in order to get a good
exam result, in order to
go to a good university,
in order to get a good
job, in order to…
Recap Questions
1. What is the difference between efficient and
final cause?
2. How do we decide whether something is
good or not according to Aristotle?
3. What is the final cause of humans?
Aristotle believed that the ultimate
purpose (the final cause) of human
action is EUDAIMONIA.
EUDAIMONIA is usually translated as
happiness, but it isn’t about feeling
happy, it’s about THRIVING or
FLOURISHING.
Eudaimonia is achieved when humans
fulfil their function perfectly.
But how? What is our efficient cause?
Thriving is often a
term used to
describe plants. A
plant is “thriving if
it is successful in all
it’s aspects” – a
human might
“thrive” in a similar
way.
Working out our Efficient Cause…
• Aristotle said that the efficient cause (how we
achieve Eudaimonia, the function) of humans
must be something that only humans can do.
• Although we do lots of things (such as grow, eat
and fight) that animals and/or plants can do, they
cannot be our function as these things are not
unique to us.
What can humans do that animals or plants can’t?
Make a list on your whiteboards.
Working out our Efficient Cause…
• Aristotle said that the efficient cause (how we
achieve Eudaimonia) of humans must be
something that only humans can do.
• Although we do lots of things (such as grow, eat
and fight) that animals and/or plants can do, they
cannot be our function as they can’t achieve true
happiness in the way we can.
• The one thing that makes humans unique is that
we have rationality or reason. So this must be
our function, our way of achieving Eudaimonia.
Working out our Efficient Cause…
"The function of man is activity of the soul in accordance
with reason“ - Aristotle
Aristotle identifies two different ways we can use our
rational soul – reasoning, and following reasoning. So,
someone who fulfils his function as a person (and
achieves Eudaimonia) is someone who uses their
rationality in thinking, and who always acts in a way that
is consistent with that rational thinking.
How might we sometimes go against what our
rationality says?
Rationality
• A good person is someone who uses their rationality
well.
• Our actions and decisions are influenced by both the
irrational and the rational parts of our soul.
• Often, the irrational part (our emotional reactions) has
too much influence and causes us to respond badly to
situations.
• In order to flourish, we need to use our rationality to
take control of our irrational, emotional reactions.
• If we can use our rationality to ensure we have the
right emotions at the right time and in the right
degree, then we will be fulfilling our function, and we
will thereby live a good and successful life.
We are social creatures!
“For even if the good of the community coincides
with that of the individual, it is clearly a greater and
more perfect thing to achieve and preserve that of a
community; for while it is desirable to secure what
is good in the case of an individual, to do so in the
case of a people or a state is something finer and
more sublime.”
What does Aristotle mean here?
We are social creatures!
possess
reason,
Aristotle
thinks
“ForSince
evenhumans
if the good
of the
community
coincides
must consist
using athat
withthat
thathappiness
of the individual,
it is in
clearly
greater and
to thing
work out
what a good
life is and that
thenof a
morereason
perfect
to achieve
and preserve
community;
forshould
while not
it isbe
desirable
secure–what
live it. This
done in to
isolation
is good
in the
of an individual,
dowe
so in the
we are
partcase
of groups
and society to
and
caseshould
of a people
or
a
state
is
something
finer
and
concern ourselves with the overall wellmore sublime.”
being of it. As Aristotle famously puts it, we
are social animals. This means that our wellbeing, our sense of the good life, our
What does
Aristotle
mean
flourishing,
is inextricably
bound
up here?
with our
community’s well-being and flourishing.
Quick Summary So Far
1. Why is Aristotle focusing on agent-centred
ethics rather than action-centred ethics?
2. What does he mean by Eudaimonia?
3. What does he think we mean when we say
something is “good”?
4. What must we use to achieve Eudaimonia?
5. Why might this sometimes be a problem?
Quick Summary So Far
Problems with traditional
ethical theories.
????
????
Instead try to base ethics
on how we should be as
people, not rules or
consequences.
Rationality tells us that
the best thing to do is to
apply right emotions, at
the right time, in the
right degree.
????
Ultimate aim of
Eudaimonia – happiness
and a good life for all.
We can achieve
Eudaimonia by applying
our rationality
????
Guide to achieving Eudaimonia…
Aristotle defined Good as something that
fulfils its ends purpose.
The Telos (purpose) of humanity is to be
rational.
The ergon (function) of practical reason
(phronesis) is to identify virtue.
“The good for human beings is an activity of the
soul in accordance with virtue”
Why virtues?…
• Aristotle believed that in order to be good you have
to fulfil your function well.
• But in order to truly fulfil your function you need to
excel in different areas.
• Since we are rational beings we can work out what
these different areas are using our reason.
• These areas we need to excel in are referred to as
“Virtues”
• A virtue (arête in Greek) is a personal quality, habit
or skill that has been highly developed, through
individual effort and engagement.
What are Virtues?
Aristotle thinks that virtues lead to
happiness – ‘they make a human
good and make him perform his
function well’. However, virtues are
not natural states which we are born
with. These states of mind must be
acquired through education and
habit. Hence Aristotle’s famous
comment that:
‘We become just through
performing just actions, temperate
by doing temperate actions, brave
by doing brave actions’.
2 Types of Virtue
Moral Virtues - qualities of character.
They can only be cultivated through
living and learning through experience,
effectively practicing the virtue.
Intellectual virtues - qualities of the
mind.
These can be taught.
What are Virtues?
The best advice Aristotle can give is to emulate the life of a good
person who has already mastered moral virtues. The emphasis should
always be on what a good person would do, not what results in the
most good or a particular duty.
Who would you emulate?
Batman?
The Hoff?
Mother Teresa?
Someone else?
Madonna?
Quick Summary So Far
Problems with traditional
ethical theories.
We can also use our
rationality to identify
that virtuous actions are
the best way of being
good people.
We can also use our
reason to work out what
virtues we need to
develop.
Instead try to base ethics
on how we should be as
people, not rules or
consequences.
Rationality tells us that
the best thing to do is to
apply right emotions, at
the right time, in the
right degree.
????
Ultimate aim of
Eudaimonia – happiness
and a good life for all.
We can achieve
Eudaimonia by applying
our rationality
????
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lKvKwCZXuk
What makes a good life?
Think about…
-
Qualities / Personality
How we should spend our time
How we should treat others
What skills we need
Quick Summary So Far
Problems with traditional
ethical theories.
We can also use our
rationality to identify
that virtuous actions are
the best way of being
good people.
We can also use our
reason to work out what
virtues we need to
develop.
Instead try to base ethics
on how we should be as
people, not rules or
consequences.
Rationality tells us that
the best thing to do is to
apply right emotions, at
the right time, in the
right degree.
????
Ultimate aim of
Eudaimonia – happiness
and a good life for all.
We can achieve
Eudaimonia by applying
our rationality
????
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lKvKwCZXuk
Subordinate Vs Superior Aims
It’s worth noting here that Aristotle
draws a distinction between the
different aims someone may have.
Superior aims are end goals or
purposes, the ultimate things people
are aiming for.
Subordinate aims are the things we
are aiming for in the short term,
that may ultimately lead us to the
superior aims.
The most obvious
example of this
distinction is that
Eudaimonia or
flourishing would be
a superior aim. The
end goal for humans.
Anything we aim to
do in the short term
pursuit of this goal
(attending college,
getting a good job)
would be considered
a subordinate aim.
Why virtues?…
• Aristotle believed that in order to be good you have
to fulfil your function well.
• But in order to truly fulfil your function you need to
excel in different areas.
• Since we are rational beings we can work out what
these different areas are using our reason.
• These areas we need to excel in are referred to as
“Virtues”
• A virtue (arête in Greek) is a personal quality, habit
or skill that has been highly developed, through
individual effort and engagement.
What are Virtues?
Aristotle thinks that virtues lead to
happiness – ‘they make a human
good and make him perform his
function well’. However, virtues are
not natural states which we are born
with. These states of mind must be
acquired through education and
habit. Hence Aristotle’s famous
comment that:
‘We become just through
performing just actions, temperate
by doing temperate actions, brave
by doing brave actions’.
2 Types of Virtue
Moral Virtues - qualities of character.
They can only be cultivated through
living and learning through experience,
effectively practicing the virtue.
Intellectual virtues - qualities of the
mind.
These can be taught.
Intellectual Virtues
Intellectual virtues are learnt through instruction. They are
developed in the rational part of the soul and help us improve
intellectually as humans – essentially they help us think
correctly.
• art or technical skill (techne)
• scientific knowledge (episteme)
• prudence or practical wisdom (phronesis)
• intelligence or intuition (nous)
• wisdom (sophia).
• resourcefulness or good deliberation (eubolia)
• understanding (sunesis)
• judgement (gnome)
• cleverness (deinotes).
Moral Virtues
Moral Virtues can be worked out through looking at other
virtuous people, but they must be acquired and developed
through habit. Essentially we must practice them in order to be
effective. They come from the irrational part of the soul.
Courage
Temperance
Liberality
Munificence
High-mindedness
Right ambition
Good temper
Friendliness (civility)
Sincerity
Wittiness
Modesty
Just resentment
Look up any of these terms you are not sure about.
The Golden Mean
Courage
Temperance
Liberality
Munificence
High-mindedness
Right ambition
Good temper
Friendliness (civility)
Sincerity
Wittiness
Modesty
Just resentment
Aristotle believed that the correct way to live, was to follow something called
the doctrine of the mean, the middle way or temperance. Aristotle realised
that human behaviour is made up of extremes which he called vices of excess
and vices of deficiency. Aristotle argued that the best course of action falls
between the two and that this is the virtue.
For example, if courage is the virtue, then cowardice is the vice of deficiency
and foolhardiness is the vice of excess.
Courage
Temperance
Liberality
Munificence
High-mindedness
Right ambition
Good temper
Friendliness (civility)
Sincerity
Wittiness
Modesty
Just resentment
The Golden Mean
Work out what the vice of excess and deficiency would
be for each of the 12 virtues, lay it out like this::
Deficiency
Virtue
Excess
Cowardice
Courage
Rashness
Courage
Liberality
High-mindedness
Good temper
Sincerity
Is this a good way of
working out the best
way to act in any
situation?
Modesty
Temperance
Munificence
Right ambition
Friendliness (civility)
Wittiness
Just resentment
Can you think of any
time when the golden
mean might not apply?
The Golden Mean
Munificence
High- Mindedness
Just resentment
The Virtues
• Aristotle recognised that not all people will attain to the virtues, but he did argue
that a balance between the intellectual and moral virtues was essential. Practising
the moral virtues alone, might result in conformity and being an automaton.
• Aristotle urged us to think about the life we lead too. He believed that the virtues
were essential to a harmonious society. Aristotle believed that the overall well being
of the group is much more important than the well being of individuals alone and
argued that it is through encouraging the practise of the virtues that society will be
a harmonious place.
• Aristotle was not a deep believer in the after-life. Aristotle was a man who valued
empirical (sense) evidence above all else and believed that if anything lived on, it
would be our memories. Because of this, the point of being virtuous is not to
achieve unity with God, or win a place in heaven, it is good because it is the right
way to live.
So Applying it…
Applying virtue ethics is tricky, as it’s not a theory designed to
give you “right” and “wrong” actions in a particular situation –
instead the idea is that in developing and practicing your virtues
you will “know” what the correct route is. This is because you
will be improving your character and ultimately becoming a
better person.
Quick Summary So Far
Problems with traditional
ethical theories.
We can look to people
we consider virtuous and
use our reason to decide
what virtues we need.
The doctrine of the
mean will allow us to be
specific in our virtues.
Instead try to base ethics
on how we should be as
people, not rules or
consequences.
Rationality tells us that
the best thing to do is to
apply right emotions, at
the right time, in the
right degree (virtues).
Some virtues are
intellectual and can be
taught. Some are moral
and must be practiced.
We can achieve
Eudaimonia by applying
our rationality
A combination of both is
what we truly need to be
good people and
ultimately achieve
Eudaimonia.
Ultimate aim of
Eudaimonia – happiness
and a good life for all.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i_s7bEP762c