Transcript Moral Development

Slide 1
14—Moral Development
•
•
•
•
Domains of Moral Development
Contexts of Moral Development
Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior
Summary
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 2
Domains of Moral Development
• What Is Moral Development?
– Moral Development
• Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding
standards of right and wrong.
– Intrapersonal dimension: regulates a person’s
activities when she or he is not engaged in social
interaction
– Interpersonal dimension: regulates social
interactions and arbitrates conflict.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 3
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought
– Piaget’s Theory
• Piaget concluded that children think in two distinct
ways about morality, depending on their
developmental maturity.
– Heteronomous morality—The first stage of
moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurs
from 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are
conceived of as unchangeable properties of the
world, removed from the control of people.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 4
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Piaget (continued)
– There is a transitional period from 7 to 10 years of age,
when children show features of both the first and
second stages of moral development.
– Autonomous Morality—The second stage of moral
development in Piaget’s theory, displayed by children
about 10 years of age and older. The child becomes
aware that rules and laws are created by people and
that, in judging an action, one should consider the
actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 5
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Piaget (continued)
– The heteronomous thinker believes in
immanent justice—if a rule is broken,
punishment will be meted out immediately.
– Children become more sophisticated in thinking
about social matters as they develop,
particularly through the give-and-take of peer
relations.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 6
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought
– Kohlberg’s Theory
• Kohlberg believed that moral development is
primarily based on moral reasoning and
unfolds in a series of three levels of moral
thinking, each characterized by two stages.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 7
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
– Preconventional Reasoning: The lowest level in
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, when good and
bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and
punishments.
• Stage 1. Heteronomous morality—moral thinking
is tied to punishment.
• Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose,
and exchange—what is right involves an equal
exchange.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 8
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
– Conventional Reasoning: The second, or intermediate,
level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Individuals apply certain standards, but they are the
standards of others, such as parents or the government.
• Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations,
relationships, and interpersonal conformity—
individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others
as a basis of moral judgments.
• Stage 4. Social systems morality—moral
judgments are based on understanding the social
order, law, justice, and duty.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 9
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
– Postconventional Reasoning: The highest level in
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in which
individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore
the options, and decide on a personal moral code.
• Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual
rights—individuals reason that values, rights, and
principles undergird or transcend the law.
• Stage 6. Universal ethical principles—individuals
develop a moral standard based on universal human
rights.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 10
Domains of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages of
Moral Development
• Refer to Figure 14.1
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 11
Domains of Moral Development
Moral Reasoning at Kohlberg’s Stages in
Response to the “Heinz and the Druggist”
Story
• Refer to Figure 14.2
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 12
Domains of Moral Development
Age and the Percentage of Individuals at Each
Kohlberg Stage
• Refer to Figure 14.3
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 13
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Theory (continued)
– Influences on the Kohlberg Stages
• Kohlberg believed that children’s moral orientation
reflected their cognitive development and their
experiences dealing with moral questions and moral
conflict.
• Kohlberg believed that peer interaction is a critical
part of the social stimulation that challenges
children to change their moral reasoning.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 14
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought (continued)
– Kohlberg’s Critics
• Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
– Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much
emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on
moral behavior.
• Assessment of Moral Reasoning
– Some developmentalists fault the quality of Kohlberg’s
research and believe that more attention should be paid to
the way moral development is assessed.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 15
Domains of Moral Development
Actual Moral Dilemmas Generated by
Adolescents
• Refer to Figure 14.4
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 16
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
– Culture and Moral Development
• Some argue that Kohlberg’s view is culturally biased
(Banks, 1993; Miller, 1995).
• Although Kohlberg’s approach does capture much
of the moral reasoning voiced in various cultures
around the world, his approach misses or
misconstrues some important moral concepts in
particular cultures (Gibbs, 2003; Lapsley &
Narvaez, 2004; Walker, 2004).
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 17
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
– Families and Moral Development
• Kohlberg believed that family processes are
essentially unimportant in children’s moral
development.
• Other developmentalists emphasize that inductive
discipline, which uses reasoning and focuses
children’s attention on the consequences of their
actions, positively influences moral development;
and parents’ moral values influence children’s
developing moral thoughts.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 18
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
– Gender and the Care Perspective
• Gilligan believes Kohlberg’s theory, based on a male
norm, puts abstract principles above relationships
and reflects a gender bias.
• Justice perspective—Focuses on individual rights;
individuals independently make moral decisions.
• Care perspective—Emphasized by Carol Gilligan,
this perspective views people in terms of their
connectedness with others and emphasizes
interpersonal communication, relationships with
others, and concern for others.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 19
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought: Kohlberg’s Critics (continued)
– Social Conventional Reasoning
• Some theorists and researchers argue that it is
important to distinguish between moral reasoning
and social conventional reasoning.
– Social Conventional Reasoning—Thoughts
about social consensus and convention, which
are arbitrarily determined; in contrast, moral
rules are obligatory, widely accepted, and
somewhat impersonal.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 20
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Behavior
– Basic Processes:
• Based on Basic Learning Principles.
• Behavior is situation-specific; however, although
moral behavior is influenced by situational
determinants, some children are more likely than
others to cheat, lie, and steal.
• Reinforcement, punishment, imitation, and the
situation only partially account for moral behavior.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 21
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Behavior (continued)
– Resistance to Temptation and Self-Control
• A key ingredient of moral development from the
social cognitive perspective is a child’s ability to
resist temptation and to develop self-control
(Bandura, 1986; Mischel, 1986);
• Self-control is influenced by cognitive factors
(Mischel, 2004).
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 22
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Behavior (continued)
– Social Cognitive Theory
• Social Cognitive theory of morality distinguishes
between moral competence (the ability to perform
moral behaviors) and moral performance
(performing those behaviors in specific situations).
– Moral competencies—what individuals are
capable of doing; the outgrowth of cognitivesensory processes.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 23
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Behavior: Social Cognitive Theory
(continued)
• Moral performance is determined by motivation
and the rewards and incentives to act in a moral
way.
• Bandura (1991, 2002, 2004) believes that moral
development is best understood by considering a
combination of social and cognitive factors,
especially those involving self control; selfregulation (not abstract reasoning) is the key to
positive moral development.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 24
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Feeling
– Psychoanalytic Theory
• In Freud’s view, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling
guilty are the foundations of moral behavior.
• The ego ideal rewards the child by conveying a
sense of pride and personal value when the child
acts according to ideal standards approved by
parents.
• The conscience punishes the child for behaviors
disapproved by the parents by making the child feel
guilty and worthless.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 25
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Feeling (continued)
– Empathy
• Positive feelings, such as empathy—reacting to
another’s feelings with an emotional response that is
similar to the other’s feelings—contribute to the
child’s moral development.
• Empathy has a cognitive component.
• Global empathy, the infant’s empathic response in
which clear boundaries between feelings and needs
of the self and those of others have not yet been
established, is not consistently observed.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 26
Domains of Moral Development
Damon’s Description of Developmental
Changes in Empathy
• Refer to Figure 14.5
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 27
Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Feeling (continued)
– The Contemporary Perspective on Emotion in
Moral Development
• Many child developmentalists believe that both
positive feelings (e.g., empathy, sympathy,
admiration, and self-esteem) and negative feelings
(e.g., anger, outrage, shame, and guilt) contribute to
children’s moral development.
• Moral emotions are interwoven with the cognitive
and social aspects of children’s development.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 28
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 1
• Discuss theory and research on moral thought, behavior,
and feeling.
– Review
• What is moral development?
• What are Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories of moral
development? How can Kohlberg’s theory be
evaluated? What is social conventional reasoning?
• What processes are involved in moral behavior?
What is the social cognitive theory of moral
development?
• How are moral feelings related to moral
development?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 29
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 1
– Reflect
• What do you think about the following
circumstances?
A man who had been sentenced to serve 10 years
for selling a small amount of marijuana walked
away from a prison camp after serving only 6
months of his sentence. Twenty-five years later he
was caught. He is now in his 50s and is a model
citizen. Should he be sent back to prison? Why or
why not? At which Kohlberg stage should your
response be placed? (continue → → →
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 30
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 1
– Reflect (continued)
A young woman who had been in a tragic accident
is “brain dead” and has been kept on life support
systems for 4 years without ever regaining
consciousness. Should the life support systems be
removed? Explain your response. At which
Kohlberg stage should your response be placed?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 31
Contexts of Moral Development
• Parenting
– Parental Discipline (Discipline Techniques)
• Love withdrawal
– Parents withhold attention or love from the
child. The arousal generated may result in the
child not paying attention.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 32
Contexts of Moral Development
• Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
• Power assertion
– Parents attempt to gain control over the child or
the child’s resources. Parents act as weak models
of self-control who cannot control their feelings.
• Induction
– Parents use reason and explanation of the
consequences for others of the child’s actions.
The moderate level of arousal allows children to
pay attention to parents’ cognitive rationale.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 33
Contexts of Moral Development
• Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
– Parenting Recommendations: Moral children
tend to have parents who:
• Are warm and supportive, not punitive
• Use inductive discipline
• Provide opportunities for learning about others’
perspectives and feelings
• Involve children in family decision making and in
the process of thinking about moral discussion
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 34
Contexts of Moral Development
• Parenting: Parental Discipline (continued)
– Parenting Recommendations (continued):
• Model moral behaviors and thinking
• Provide information about what behaviors are
expected and why
• Foster an internal rather than an external sense of
morality
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 35
Contexts of Moral Development
• Schools
– Hidden curriculum
• The moral atmosphere that is part of every school; it
is conveyed by the moral atmosphere created by
school and classroom rules, the moral orientation of
teachers and school administrators, and text
materials.
– Character Education
• A direct approach that involves teaching students
“moral literacy” to prevent them from engaging in
immoral behavior.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 36
Contexts of Moral Development
• Schools (continued)
– Cognitive Moral Education
• A concept based on the belief that students should
learn to value things like democracy and justice as
their moral reasoning develops.
– Values Clarification
• Helping people clarify what their lives are for and
what is worth working for.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 37
Contexts of Moral Development
• Schools (continued)
– Service Learning
• A form of education that promotes social
responsibility and service to the community. It
benefits students and community:
– Improved grades, motivation and goal setting
– Improved self-esteem and sense of being able to
make a difference
– Decreased alienation
– Increased reflection on society’s political
organization and moral order
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 38
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 2
• Explain how parents and schools influence
moral development.
– Review
• How is parental discipline related to moral
development? What are some effective parenting
strategies for advancing children’s moral
development?
• What is the hidden curriculum? What are some
contemporary approaches to moral education?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 39
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 2
– Reflect
• What type of discipline did your parents use with
you? What effect do you think this has had on your
moral development?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 40
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Prosocial Behavior
– Prosocial Behavior: behavior that is intended to
benefit other people.
– Altruism and Reciprocity
• Altruism, an unselfish interest in helping another
person; an important aspect of prosocial behavior.
• Reciprocity, a societal norm involving the
obligation to return a favor with a favor.
– Ideas that children form in early childhood set the stage
for giant strides that children make in the years that
follow.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 41
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Prosocial Behavior (continued)
– Sharing and Fairness
• During the first 3 years of life children imitate
sharing behavior or do it for the fun of social play.
• About 4 years of age: empathic awareness and adult
encouragement produces a sense of obligation.
• By elementary school age children express more
complicated notions of fairness based on equality,
merits, benevolence, and compromise.
• Adult authority has little to do with children sharing.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 42
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Prosocial Behavior (continued)
– Sharing and Fairness (continued)
• Adolescents engage in prosocial behavior more than
children.
• Girls engage in prosocial behavior more than boys.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 43
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior
– Conduct Disorder
• Age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate
family expectations, society’s norms, and the
personal or property rights of others.
• Five percent of children show serious conduct
problems, also called an externalizing or
undercontrolled pattern of behavior.
• Possible causes are genetic inheritance of a difficult
temperament, ineffective parenting, and living in a
neighborhood where violence is the norm.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 44
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior (continued)
– Juvenile Delinquency
• A broad range of behaviors ranging from socially
unacceptable behavior such as acting out in school
to criminal acts such as burglary.
• Index offenses: Criminal acts, committed by
juveniles or adults, such acts as robbery, aggravated
assault, rape, and homicide.
• Status offenses: Less serious acts performed by
youth under a specified age, such as running away,
truancy, underage drinking, sexual promiscuity, and
uncontrollability.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 45
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency
(continued)
– Antecedents of Delinquency: Three pathways to
delinquency are:
• Authority conflict—stubbornness prior to age 12,
then defiance and avoidance of authority.
• Covert—minor covert acts (e.g., lying) followed by
property damage and moderately serious
delinquency, then serious delinquency.
• Overt—minor aggression followed by fighting and
violence.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 46
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency
(continued)
– Antecedents of Delinquency (continued)
•
•
•
•
McGraw-Hill
Erikson: negative identity
Characteristics of lower-SES culture
Inadequate family support systems
Peer relations
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 47
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior: Juvenile Delinquency
(continued)
– Preventing Delinquency
• Fast Track: At-risk children and their families
receive support and training in parenting, problemsolving and coping skills, peer relations, classroom
atmosphere and curriculum, academic achievement,
and home-school relations.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 48
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior
– Violence and Youth
• These factors often are present in at-risk youths and
seem to propel them toward violent acts (Walker,
1998):
– Early involvement with drugs and alcohol
– Easy access to weapons, especially handguns
– Association with antisocial, deviant peer groups
– Pervasive exposure to violence in the media
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 49
Prosocial and Antisocial
Behavior
• Antisocial Behavior
– Reducing Youth Violence
• Recommit to raising children safely and effectively
• Make prevention a reality
• Give more support to school
• Forge effective partnerships among families,
schools, social service systems, churches, and other
agencies
– Garbarino (1999) concludes that youth who are killers
lack a spiritual center.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 50
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 3
• Describe the development of prosocial and
antisocial behavior.
– Review
• How is altruism defined? How does prosocial
behavior develop?
• What is conduct disorder? What are the key factors
in the development of juvenile delinquency and
youth violence?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 51
Review and Reflect: Learning
Goal 3
– Reflect
• As the head of a major government agency
responsible for reducing delinquency in the United
States, what programs would you try to implement?
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 52
Summary
• Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors regarding right and wrong.
• Piaget distinguished between heteronomous morality in
younger children and autonomous morality in older
children.
• Kohlberg developed a provocative theory of moral
reasoning that develops through three levels:
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. His
critics noted that moral reasoning does not adequately
predict moral behavior.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 53
Summary
• Behaviorists argue that children’s moral
behavior is determined by the processes of
reinforcement, punishment, and imitation.
• Cognitions can play a role in resistance to
temptation and in self-control.
• Social cognitive theory emphasizes a
distinction between moral competence and
moral performance.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 54
Summary
• In Freud’s theory, the superego—the moral branch
of personality—consists of the ego ideal and the
conscience, and guilt is the foundation of moral
behavior.
• Empathy is a positive feeling that influences
children to act in accord with moral standards.
• Secure attachment provides the basis for parents to
influence a child’s moral development in positive
ways.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 55
Summary
• Parental discipline can involve love withdrawal, power
assertion, or induction; induction is most likely to be
linked with positive moral development, at least in middleSES children.
• Parents contribute to children’s moral development by
providing opportunities for perspective taking and by
modeling moral reasoning and behavior.
• Originally proposed by John Dewey, the hidden curriculum
refers to the moral atmosphere of a school.
• Contemporary approaches include character education,
cognitive moral education, values clarification, and service
learning.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 56
Summary
• Altruism, an unselfish interest in helping another
person, and reciprocity often motivate prosocial
behavior such as sharing.
• Damon described a sequence by which children
develop their understanding of fairness.
• Peers play a key role in development of fairness
and sharing.
• Adolescents engage in prosocial behavior more
than children, and girls engage in prosocial
behavior more than boys.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 57
Summary
• Conduct disorder involves age-inappropriate actions and
attitudes that violate family expectations, society’s norms,
and the personal or property rights of others.
• Juvenile delinquency includes a broad range of behaviors,
including index offenses and status offenses.
• Pathways to delinquency include conflict with authority,
covert acts followed by more serious acts, and minor
aggression following by fighting and violence.
• Risk factors for delinquency are living in an urban, highcrime area, low parental monitoring, ineffective discipline,
having an older sibling who is a delinquent, and
associating with peers who are delinquents.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..
Slide 58
Summary
• Early involvement with drugs and violence, easy
access to weapons, associations with antisocial
peer groups, and pervasive exposure to violent
content in the media are associated with youth
violence.
• Recommendations for reducing youth violence
include effective parenting, prevention, support for
schools, and forging effective partnerships among
families, schools, and communities.
McGraw-Hill
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved..