Transcript Stage Two - Binus Repository

Matakuliah : L0014
Tahun
: 2007
DEVELOPMENTAL PSIKOLOGI
Pertemuan 13 S.d. 16
• Nature vs Nurture
• Maturation
– Systematic psychical growth of the body, including the nervous system
• Imprinting
– A form of early learning that occurs in some animals during a critical period
• Critical Period
– A biologically determined period in the life of some animals during which certain
forms of learning can take place most easily
• Rooting Reflex
– An automatic response in which an infant turns its head toward stimulation on the
cheek
• Babinsky Reflex
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DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Jean Piaget
Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan
Eric Erikson
JEAN PIAGET (1)
Theory of Cognitive Development
• Expanding on earlier work from James Mark Baldwin: four levels of development
corresponding roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre-school, (3) childhood, and (4)
adolescence.
• Each stage is characterized by a general cognitive structure that affects all of the
child's thinking (a structuralist view influenced by philosopher Immanuel Kant
• Each stage represents the child's understanding of reality during that period, and
each but the last is an inadequate approximation of reality.
• Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the accumulation of
errors in the child's understanding of the environment; this accumulation
eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought
structures require reorganizing.
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JEAN PIAGET (2)
Theory of Cognitive Development
•
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as
1.
Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2 years (children experience the world
through movement and senses and learn object permanence)
2. Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills)
3. Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically about
concrete events)
4. Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning).
•
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Piaget viewed children as little philosophers, which he called tiny thought-sacks
and scientists building their own individual theories of knowledge. Some people
have used his ideas to focus on what children cannot do. Piaget, however, used
their problem areas to help understand their cognitive growth and development.
JEAN PIAGET (3)
Theory of Cognitive Development
•
Piaget provided no concise (or clear) description of the development process as a whole.
Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle:
–
–
–
–
–
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The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and the child is able to
note the characteristics of the action and its effects.
Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on different kinds
of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its elements and effects. This is the
process of reflecting abstraction (described in detail in Piaget 2001).
At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way different kinds
of action affect them. This is the process of empirical abstraction.
By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child establishes a new
level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming a new cognitive stage. This dual
process allows the child to construct new ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge about
objects themselves.
However, once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use
them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still more complex actions. As a
result, the child starts to recognize still more complex patterns and to construct still more
complex objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only be completed when all the child’s
activity and experience have been re-organized on this still higher level.
JEAN PIAGET (4)
Theory of Cognitive Development
• “Genetic epistemology"attempts to explain knowledge, and in
particular scientific knowledge, on the basis of its history, its
sociogenesis, and especially the psychological origins of the notions
and operations upon which it is based"
• Jean Piaget has become a reference for epistemology, and
particularly for constructivist epistemology. According to Ernst von
Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist
theory of knowing"
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KOHLBERG (1)
Stages of Moral Development
• the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination
with children's reactions to moral dilemmas
• His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last
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KOHLBERG (2)
Stages of Moral Development
– Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
– 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
– 2. Self-interest orientation
( What's in it for me?)
– Level 2 (Conventional)
– 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
( The good boy/good girl attitude)
– 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
 ( Law and order morality)
– Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
– 5. Social contract orientation
– 6. Universal ethical principles
 ( Principled conscience)
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KOHLBERG
Pre-conventional
•
•
•
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The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although
adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners in the pre-conventional level
judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level
consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and are purely concerned
with the self in an egocentric manner.
In Stage one, individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions will have for
themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong if the person who
commits it gets punished. The worse the punishment for the act is, the more 'bad' the act
is perceived to be.[12] In addition, there is no recognition that others' points of view are
any different from one's own view. This stage may be viewed as a kind of authoritarianism.
Stage two espouses the what's in it for me position, right behavior being defined by what
is in one's own best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of
others, but only to a point where it might further one's own interests, such as you scratch
my back, and I'll scratch yours.[3] In stage two concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect. Lacking a perspective of society in the pre-conventional level, this
should not be confused with social contract (stage five), as all actions are performed to
serve one's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the perspective of the
world is often seen as morally relative.
KOHLBERG
Conventional
•
•
•
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The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Persons who reason in a
conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing these actions to societal views and
expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development.
In Stage three, the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive of approval or
disapproval from other people as it reflects society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to
be a good boy or good girl to live up to these expectations,[3] having learned that there is inherent
value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its
consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect,
gratitude and the 'golden rule'. Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support
these stereotypical social roles. The intentions of actions play a more significant role in reasoning at
this stage; 'they mean well...'.[3]
In Stage four, it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance
in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three; society must learn to transcend individual needs. A
central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism.
If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would - thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold
laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant
factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
KOHLBERG
Post-conventional
•
•
•
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The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, consists of stages five and six of moral
development. Realization that individuals are separate entities from society now becomes salient.
One's own perspective should be viewed before the society's. It is due to this 'nature of self before
others' that the post-conventional level, especially stage six, is sometimes mistaken for preconventional behaviors.
In Stage five, individuals are viewed as holding different opinions and values. Along a similar vein, laws
are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid dictums. Those that do not promote general social
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of
people.[8] This is attained through majority decision, and inevitably compromise. In this way
democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
In Stage six, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws
are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it
an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Rights are unnecessary as social contracts are not essential for
deontic moral action. Decisions are not met hypothetically in a conditional way but rather
categorically in an absolute way (see Immanuel Kant's 'categorical imperative'[13]). This can be done
by imagining what one would do being in anyone's shoes, who imagined what anyone would do thinking
the same (see John Rawls's 'veil of ignorance'[14]). The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this
way action is never a means but always an end in itself; one acts because it is right, and not because it
is instrumental, expected, legal or previously agreed upon. While Kohlberg insisted that stage six
exists, he had difficulty finding participants who consistently used it. It appears that people rarely if
ever reach stage six of Kohlberg's model
CAROL GILLIGAN (1)
Theory of Moral Development
• she criticized Kohlberg's research on the moral development of children, which at
the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral
development than boys did
• Gilligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg's basic study were largely
male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to favor a principled way
of reasoning that was more common to boys, over a moral argumentation
concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw
reason to revise his scoring methods as a result of Gilligan's critique, after which
boys and girls scored evenly.
• Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a
theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice.
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CAROL GILLIGAN (2)
Theory of Moral Development
• Morality as Individual Survival
– What is “right” is what is good for him/her
– Follow rules to obtain rewards for themselves and to avoid punishment
• Morality as Self-Sacrifice
– Attained after becoming aware of the needs of others
– Believes that to be good and to be approved by others, they must sacrifices
their own needs and meet the needs of others
• Morality as Equality
– Views his/her own needs as equal to those of others
– Stage of advocacy of non violence – it is not right for anyone to be
intentionally hurt, including the person himself/herself
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Erik Erikson (1)
Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Erik Erikson believed that every human being goes through a certain amount of
stages to reach their full development. There are 8 stages, that a human being
goes through from birth to death
• Erikson always insisted that he was a Freudian, he is better described as a NeoFreudian, Subsequent authors have described him as an "ego psychologist,"
• In contrast to the stress laid in orthodox Freudianism on the id, Erikson
emphasised the ego. Perhaps the most conspicuous way in which his theory
differs from that of Freud is that,
• In contrast to Freud's list of stages that take development up through
adolescence, Erikson lists eight stages of development, spanning the entire
lifespan
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Erik Erikson (2)
Theory of Psychosocial Development
•
Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict,
for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Stage One Oral-Sensory: from birth to one, trust vs. mistrust (ex. feeding)
Stage Two Muscular-Anal: 1-3 years, autonomy vs. shame (ex. toilet training)
Stage Three Locomotor : 3-6 years, initiative vs. guilt (ex. Independence)
Stage Four Latency: 6-12 years, industry vs. inferiority (ex. school)
Stage Five Adolescence: 12-18 years, identity vs. confusion (ex. peer
6.
7.
8.
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relationships)
Stage Six Young Adulthood: 18-40 years, intimacy vs. isolation (ex. love
relationships)
Stage Seven Middle Adulthood: 40-65 years, generativity vs. stagnation (ex.
Parenting)
Stage Eight Maturity: 65 years until death, integrity vs. despair (ex. acceptance
of one's life)
Erik Erikson (3)
Theory of Social Development
•
1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well - handled,
nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and
mistrustful.
•
2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months
or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well - parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated
with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with
assured self - possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial
crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds
resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the
sound of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store.
•
3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later preschool
years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing
child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate
with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups
(3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in
imagination.
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Erik Erikson (4)
Theory of Social Development
•
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the "school age," presumably up
to and possibly including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers
according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork,
such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline
increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting,
autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The
shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority.
•
5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)
During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer
satisfactorily and happily the question of "Who am I?" But even the best - adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity
diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - doubts flood the youngster,
and so on.
Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires selfcertainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different - usually constructive - roles rather
than adopting a "negative identity" (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being
"paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or
womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially
congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a
"psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but
can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them
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Erik Erikson (5)
Theory of Social Development
•
6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy - the sort of
intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.
•
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)
In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage
and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively.
•
8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult
develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and dares the
new. He works hard, has found a well - defined role in life, and has developed a selfconcept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of
realism; and he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one
or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and
his life with disgust and despair.
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