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Environmental Ethics Definitions Moral Agents Those who have the freedom and rational capacity to be responsible for choices Those capable of moral reflection and decision. Example: adult humans of sound mind Infants and mentally infirm adults are NOT moral agents Definitions Moral Standing: If you have moral standing: Your continued existence or welfare is valuable in itself (intrinsic value) Your interests and wellbeing must be weighed when deciding what is permissible to do. Example: humans of all kinds Babies, children, adults, old people, etc. Women, different races, different cultures Definitions Moral Duties That which is owed by moral agents to those with moral standing. Example: It is wrong to kill our children because we have a moral duty toward them Philosophical Issue Who or what has moral standing, and why? Does the environment have moral standing? Must look at criteria for moral standing What moral duty do we (moral agents) have toward those with moral standing? Different ethical positions suggest different moral duties. Yosemite National Park Environmental Ethics & Philosophies Biocentric - views all living things as having inherent worth (Albert Schweitzer) Ecocentric - holistic, considering the whole to have an inherent value and therefore deserving of moral consideration independent of human-imposed values (Aldo Leopold) Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing Membership in the species Homo sapiens Humans have a soul Humans are moral agents and are responsible for knowing right from wrong Humans are intelligent Humans have personhood and self-consciousness Humans have language Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing Sentience, the ability to feel pain Therefore extend moral standing to animals Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing Being alive Therefore extend moral standing to animals and plants: All living things. Ideas on Criteria for Moral Standing Being part of nature Therefore extend moral standing to the earth ecosystems rocks rivers plants animals the entire natural world Ethical Positions Anthropocentrism: Human centered morality Only humans have intrinsic value and moral standing. The rest of the natural world has instrumental value (use to humans). Anthropocentrism We can best protect nature by looking out for human needs. Ex: Ducks Unlimited preserves wetlands Ex: Saving the rainforests will provide O2 and medicines for humans. Problem: Would you blow up the world if you were the last human Ethical Positions Sentio-centrism: Sentient-being centered morality All and only sentient beings (animals that feel pain) have intrinsic value and moral standing. The rest of the natural world has instrumental value. Both humans and sentient animals have rights and/or interests that must be considered Ethical Positions Biocentric Individualism: Life-centered morality All and only living beings, specifically individual organisms (not species or ecosystems) have intrinsic value and moral standing. Humans are not superior to other life forms nor privileged, and must respect the inherent worth of every organism Humans should minimize harm and interference with nature: eat vegetarian since less land needs to be cultivated. Ethical Positions Eco-centric Holism: ecosystem centered morality Non-individuals (the earth as an interconnected ecosystem, species, natural processes) have moral standing or intrinsic value and are deserving of respect. Individuals must be concerned about the whole community of life/nature, Humans should strive to preserve ecological balance and stability. Patriarchal Dualisms Greek, Roman, Hebrew: Humans are separate from Human, mind, rationality, and man are linked, and inferior Justifies domination by men over Aristotle are linked and superior Nature, body, feelings, and woman and superior to nature Nature Women Environmental Ethics & Philosophies ecofeminism - analyzes societal and cultural traits that may have led to the degradation of the environment; specifically concentrates on the oppression of women by a traditional patriarchal society as a major form of social domination that has precipitated other forms of exploitation and domination, including exploitation of the environment. Ecofeminism Rejects Patriarchal Dualisms The domination of nature by men is wrong Must break the pattern of "power over" relationships Acid attack victims is similar to and related to the domination of women by men. will benefit both women and the natural world. Feminism Deep Ecology Humans are deeply connected with nature. If humans identify with nature, then taking care of the natural world will become part of taking care of one's self. Environmental Ethics & Philosophies Deep ecology - holistic and extreme non- anthropocentric perspective, rejecting the human vs environment dichotomy (humans only one species among equal species) (Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess) William Baxter In his essay, “People or Penguins” Baxter argues that people have intrinsic value, but that penguins do not. In Baxter’s words, “ Every human being should be regarded as an end rather than as a means to be used for the betterment of another.” This means that people have intrinsic value and should not be used. Value Concepts Intrinsic Value Extrinsic Value Intrinsic Value Intrinsic value is value that a thing has in and of its self. Often valuable as an ends. Examples: Happiness, Love, Honor, Family, Heath, and Freedom Extrinsic Value Something has extrinsic if it is valuable as a means to acquiring or attaining something we value in virtue of itself. For example money has little or no intrinsic value, it’s just bits of paper or metal, but it has great extrinsic value in that it can used to acquire other items which we do value. Penguins have value Penguins have value, if people find then valuable. If they make us happy or we enjoy watching them march across Antarctica. Norman Bowie Business should not interfere in political regulation of environmental policy. Business Should not Interfere 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Business argues that it has no special obligation to the environment because it is willing to follow consumer’s preference on this issue. Because of external factors consumers cannot express their preferences in the market Therefore they must express them in the political arena Business intervention interferes with the express of those preferences Since 4 follows from 1, business should not interfere in the political process. What is pollution? Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment We will be examining 3 main parts of pollution Water Pollution Air Pollution Land Pollution Water Pollution Causes of Water Pollution Factors that contribute to water pollution can be categorized into two different groups Point sources Non-point sources Point sources are the easiest to identify and control Non point sources are ambiguously defined and harder to control Point Sources Some point sources of water pollution include Waste products from factories Waste from sewage system Waste from power plants Waste from underground coalmines Waste from oil wells They are called point sources because they are direct sources of water pollution and can be reduced and monitored Example of a point source Non-point Sources The term non-point source encompasses a large range of sources such as: when rain or snow moves through the ground and picks up pollutants as it moves towards a major body of water the runoff of fertilizers from farm animals and crop land air pollutants getting washed or deposited to earth storm water drainage from lawns, parking lots, and streets Non-point source: Agricultural runoff Air Pollution Causes of Air Pollution One of the main causes of air pollution is the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, this happens because of Deforestation and fossil fuel burning Sulfur dioxide is another air polluter and is released into the atmosphere by the burning of sulfur containing compounds of fossil fuels. Sulfur oxides are very dangerous to humans at a high concentration. Sulfur in the atmosphere is responsible for acid rain More causes of air pollution: CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) also contribute to air pollution by reducing the amount of ozone the stratosphere. CFCs come from a variety of places such as: the burning of plastic foam items leaking refrigerator equipment spray cans Natural Air Pollutants Natural air pollutants can include: Smoke from wild fires Methane released from live stock Volcanic eruptions Consequences of Air Pollution CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but it also partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space, which produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during the night Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface CO2 in atmosphereGLOBAL WARMING More good news: The Clean Air Act passes a Cost-Benefit Analysis! In the 1990 CAA amendments, congress required EPA to conduct a cost-benefit analysis on the CAA “Final Report to Congress on Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970-1990” Annual Costs: $25 billion (mainly compliance costs) Annual Benefits: $1.1 trillion (range 0.3-2.5 trillion) Mainly avoided deaths, avoided hospitalizations and avoided lost IQ points in children) A “no brainer”... Bad news: Air pollution is still a problem in the U.S. The CAA specifies that EPA should set air standards—called the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—in order to protect the most sensitive members of the public with an adequate margin of safety. Costs or other economic considerations are not to be considered. NAAQS should be re-evaluated by EPA every 5 years to ensure they are consistent with best scientific data. This leads to a “ratchet effect.” Non-attainment areas for 8-hour O3 standard Currently, about 100 million people in the US live in areas that don’t meet the O3 standard. Note that in 2007, EPA has proposed a new lower (tougher) O3 standard. Final rules will be announced in 2012. PM2.5 Non-attainment areas Orange: Areas that exceed only the annual std (15 ug/m3). Yellow: Ares that exceed only the 24 hour std (65 ug/m3). Red: Areas that exceed both. Currently, ~50 million people in the US live in areas that violate the PM2.5 standard. By one estimate, there are 64,000 premature deaths in the US due to PM, at levels above and below the standard. New PM2.5 Non-attainment areas (2007) Orange: Areas that exceed only the annual std (15 ug/m3). Yellow: Ares that exceed only the 24 hour std (35 ug/m3). Red: Areas that exceed both. The Greenhouse Effect Glaciers are melting More than 110 glaciers have disappeared from Montana’s Glacier National Park over the past 150 years, and researchers estimate that the park’s remaining 37 glaciers may be gone in another 25 years. Half a world away on the African equator, Hemingway’s snows of Kilimanjaro are steadily melting and could completely disappear in the next 20 years. In the Alps, Andes and Rockies, glaciers are retreating and disappearing every year. Acid Rain When emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulfuric acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form as rain or snow and in dry form as a gases fog, dew, or solid particles, it is known as acid rain or acid deposition Acid Rain: Its effect on a tree Smog With the introduction of petroleum to replace coal economies in countries, photochemical smog has become predominant in many cities, which are located in sunny, warm, and dry climates with many motor vehicles Worst episodes of photochemical smog tends to occur in summer A smoggy city Air Pollution Smog clouds our cities. Consequences continued Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacl nitrates (PANs), cause direct damage to leaves of crop plants and trees when they enter leaf pores (stomates) Chronic exposure of leaves and needles to air pollutants can also break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost Consequences continued "In the midwestern United States crop losses of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts from damage by ozone and acid deposition amount to about $5 billion a year". (Miller 498) Land Pollution Causes of Land Pollution Four Main causes of land pollution Construction Agriculture Domestic waste Industrial Waste Construction Buildings take up resources and land, the trees are chopped down and used to make buildings Takes away from places for animals and other organisms to live Agriculture As there are more and more people inhabiting the earth, food is in higher demand and so forests are chopped down and turned into farmland In addition, herbicides, pesticides, artificial fertilizers, animal manure (poop) are washed into the soil and pollute it Domestic Waste Tons of domestic waste is dumped every day. Some waste from homes, offices and industries can be recycled or burnt in incinerators There is still a lot of garbage, such as refrigerators and washing machines that are dumped in landfills simply because they cannot be reused in anyway, nor recycled Industrial Waste Plastics factories, chemical plants, oil refineries, nuclear waste disposal activity, large animal farms, coal-fired power plants, metals production factories and other heavy industry all contribute to land pollution Consequences of Land Pollution Land pollution exterminates wild life Acid rain kills trees and other plants The vegetation that provides food and shelter is destroyed Land pollution can seriously disrupt the balance of nature, and, in extreme cases, can cause human fatalities Pesticides can damage crops; kill vegetation; and poison birds, animals, and fish. Most pesticides kill or damage life forms other than those intended. For example, pesticides used in an effort to control or destroy undesirable vegetation and insects often destroy birds and small animals. Some life forms develop immunity to pesticides used to destroy them WAYS TO STOP POLLUTION You can help to reduce global air pollution and climate change by: Driving a car that gets at least 35 mpg Walking, biking, and using public transportation Using CFL bulbs over incandescent bulbs Buying only energy efficient appliances Recycling newspaper, aluminum, and others Planting trees! Avoid purchasing products that contain CFCs Supporting much stricter clean air laws and enforcement of international treaties to reduce ozone depletion and slow global warming Numerous other concerns The environment, plant and animal extinctions, human development of natural lands, and fossil fuels are all major issues within this topic. Bioregionalism Lead a simple life with local production of food and other products by people that you know Increases environmental awareness and caring decreases exploitation of the environment and people. End Credits www.public.iastate.edu/~cfford