Transcript Document

Author: John Waters
Meta-Ethics
Socratic Ideas Limited © All Rights Reserved
M
E
T
A
David
Hume
Wittgenstein
Russell
E
T
H
I
C
S
G.E.
.Moore
A.J.Ayer
W.D.Ross
R.M. Hare
G.J.
Warnock
Prescriptivism
Normative Ethics
Aquinas
Metaethics
• First-order moral • Second-order moral G.E Moore
discourse
discourse
• Application of
Bentham ethical theories
• Beyond or after ethics
A.J. Ayer
• Analyses ethical
• e.g. Natural law,
language, structure,
Utilitarianism,
meaning.
J.S. Mill Kant.
• In what sense are Wittgenstein
• What one ought statements true?
to do…
• Is there a foundation
for ethical language? R.M. Hare
Kant
Analysis of Meta-Ethics
Cognitive
Non-cognitive
(moral judgements can
be known)
(moral judgements cannot
be known)
Naturalism
Empirical
Non-naturalism Emotivism Prescriptivism
(Intuitionism)
Non-definable
property
Yah / Boo
Commends
Universal action
Ethical Naturalism
Aquinas
Kant
Bentham
Mill
Ethics can be understood like other empirical statements
George was
War against
elected
terrorism
Empirical
Assessment
President
is good.
of the USA.
Both statements can be proven to be either
true or false through observation or evidence
J. S. Mill
Kant
Ethical naturalism may argue that, on
utilitarian grounds, it can be proven that war
against terrorism produces the greatest
happiness for the greatest number.
Or, on Kantian grounds, war against
terrorism is in accordance with upholding
international law and order, (cf. United
Nations) and so can be universalised.
Problem of Ethical Naturalism:
Commits the Naturalistic Fallacy
• Cannot deduce an
OUGHT from an IS.
• Cannot move from
FACTS to VALUES
• Cannot move from
EPISTEMOLOGY
(knowledge) to ETHICS
(G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica)
According to GE Moore a definition
of the Naturalistic Fallacy is:
“Confusing
`Good’ with a
natural
or
metaphysical
property
Committing
the naturalistic
fallacy means
one is either:
or holding it
to be identical
with such a
property.”
(Source: C. Lewy, G.E. Moore on the Naturalistic Fallacy, p.297)
Ethical Theories which Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy:
Divine Command Theory – God is the source
of morality, so whatever God wills is good.
` ` God is good’ is analytically true - by definition.
Natural Law: As nature has been created by
God it has within it laws which ought to be
followed. This will lead to human happiness.
Utilitarianism considered by analysing human
nature it is possible to prove, scientifically, that
people psychologically desire pleasure.
Kant claimed that our categorical duties are
a priori, and being grounded in reason follow
from logical considerations.
Naturalist Fallacy
Vulnerable To The OPEN Question
George is
a brother
Is George
male?
War against terrorism
upholds international
law
Statements
Is war against
are sound
terrorism good?
IF
they are
Meaningless
not vulnerable
Question
to an
OPEN
Original statement
question
is sound
Meaningful
Question
Original statement
is unsound
THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK!
• IF Ethical Naturalism were true it would not make any
sense to ask an `Open Question’. The conclusion would
already have been proven. For example the question,
`George is a brother, but is George male?’ is meaningless.
• However, ethical naturalism is not proven as an open
question may be put, and such a question is meaningful.
For example, a utilitarian may think war against terror
provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
However, the question may still be asked, “Even if war
against terror provides the greatest happiness for the
greatest number, is it still good?” And, crucially, such a
question is meaningful.
Sartre’s Existentialism rejected Ethical Naturalism’s view
that there is any one given view of human nature.
With the removal of an objective foundation for
human nature there is no basis on which Ethical
Naturalism can assert an ethic to be right or wrong.
Ethical Naturalism is
therefore false, as there is
no objective, natural view
of what it is to be human.
It is up to the individual
to use their freedom
to choose their
own values.
For Sartre Ethical Naturalism is a self-deception
of our responsibility to choose.
Non-Naturalism
(Intuitionism)
G.E. Moore
W.D. Ross
G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica 1903
“Good is a non-definable property”
“We know what
“In the same way we
`yellow’ is, and
Like the colour
know what`good’
can recognise it
Yellow
means but cannot
whenever it is seen, but
define it.”
we cannot actually
(GE Moore)
define it.”
(GE Moore) •Goodness is like beauty
•A quality found in things
•But which cannot be defined.
G.E. Moore
Non-Naturalism
(Intuitionism)
“Good means Good
Self-evident.”
“A Simple idea:
cannot be broken down
into simpler
Ideas.”
Certain words in the dictionary are non-definable
e.g. `not’ – a simple word; cannot be defined
further than the simple building block we use
it to define other ideas.
G.E. Moore’s
Intuitionism
According to Philippa
Foot, G.E. Moore’s
central thesis was that
“goodness is a nondefinable property
discovered by
intuition.”
G.E. Moore
Problems of
Moore’s Intuitionism
• What if one is ethically colour blind?
(Yellow is Green or Good is evil?)
• Lacks an authoritative foundation for ethics.
• Was G.E. Moore himself an intuitionist or an
Ideal Utilitarian?
• What to do when intuitions conflict? e.g. do
not lie, protect innocent life?
What if one is ethically colour blind?
(Yellow is Green or Good is Evil?)
Virtue is Vice?
Christian virtues
of humility and
obedience are
Nietzsche, Beyond
detrimental to the
Good and Evil, argued
human spirit,
individuality and that what is good may
be evil and what is
the intuitive
evolutionary need evil may be thought to
for self-assertion.
be good.
Vice is Virtue
The vice of pride,
condemned by St
Paul, is to be
regarded as a
virtue - otherwise
humanity will
remain
subservient.
Intuitionism lacks an objective assessment for right and wrong
Intuitionism Lacks an Authoritative
Intuitionism Foundation for Ethics
Rejects
“Man is the measure of all
things.” (Protagoras)
Jean Paul Sartre
Protagoras
Offers the individual too
much freedom.
May suffer from anti-nomian
problems, similar to those of
Sartre’s Existentialism?
An Intuitionist or an Ideal Utilitarian?
G.E. Moore is famous for his analysis of ethical language in Principia
Ethica, 1903, where he famously asserted that: Good is a nondefinable property. This led to Moore being labelled an intuitionist, as
“We know what`yellow’ is, and can recognise it whenever it is seen,
but we cannot actually define it. In the same way we know what `good’
means but cannot define it.” (Ethica, 1903)
However, closer analysis reveals that, “it seems self
evident that our duty is to do what will produce the best
effects upon the whole, no matter how bad the effects
upon ourselves may be and no matter how much we
ourselves may lose by it.” (Ethica, p.143)
As an Ideal utilitarian Moore suggests that there are
three intrinsic goods: Pleasure, Friendship, Aesthetic
appreciation – and so right actions are those which
G.E. Moore
increase / promote these in the world for the most people. (1873-1958)
W.D Ross: Prima Facie Duties
Prima Facie duties “at first glance” which the mature
person recognises intuitively through reason
What should one do when intuitions conflict? For example:
Do you lie to a gunman to protect the intended innocent victim?
Protect innocent
life.
Do not lie
W.D. Ross
Prima Facie Duties are conditional,
not absolute, and may change
depending on the situation.
• W.D. Ross was an intuitionist who argued that the mature
person intuitively knows what is good.
• “Morals, like the principles of mathematics, are self-evident,
to the mature mind….. The moral order expressed in
propositions is just as much part of the fundamental nature
of the universe as is the spatial or numerical structure
expressed in the axioms of geometry or arithmetic.” (Ross)
Morality is objective, but morals are
conditional – whether they should be
followed depends on which is one’s
over-riding duty in the particular situation.
• When a conflict between duties arise
one should follow the over-riding duty.
W.D. Ross
W.D. Ross
Six Prima Facie Duties
•
•
•
•
•
•
(Duties one ought to follow, intuitively
in the absence of an over-riding duty) •Ross does not rank
Fidelity – faithful to promises made. these duties in order
of importance.
Gratitude – appreciation for support •The mature person
offered.
intuitively knows
Justice – impartial, equal treatment of these prima facie
duties are true and
others and distribution of pleasure
may
follow
the
Beneficience – help for others.
appropriate duty
Self-improvement – self-fulfilment
given the demands
Non-malificence - avoid harming
of the particular
situation.
others.
Emotivism
Ethical statements merely express a person’s emotions.
They have no cognitive, knowledge content.
i.e. ethical statements are neither true or false.
e.g. “Torture is good.”
Boo!
Hooray
!
Desmond Tutu
Saddam Hussein
Emotivism
• Became popular through the work of
Alfred Ayer and Logical Positivists.
• Ethical Statements simply express an
individual’s emotion.
• Yah – Boo theory of ethics
• Importance of David Hume.
A.J. Ayer
“Take any action allowed to be vicious: wilful murder, for
instance. Examine it in all lights, and see if you can find
that matter of fact, or real existence, which you call vice.
In which ever way you take it, you find only certain
passions, motives, volitions, thoughts. There is no other
matter of fact in the case. The vice entirely escapes you, as
long as you consider the object.
You will never find it, till you turn your reflection into
your own breast, and find a sentiment of disapprobation,
which arises in you, towards this action. It lies in yourself,
not in the object. So that when you pronounce any action
or character to be vicious, you mean nothing, but that from
the constitution of your nature you have a feeling or
sentiment of blame from the contemplation of it.” (Hume)
Hume - Sentiment
Morality cannot be proven
empirically.
Rather, it is a question of
personal sentiment.
“Reason is and ought to be
the slave of the passions.”
Justification for such
thinking lies in Hume’s
analysis of language;
known as “Hume’s fork”
Hume’s Fork
Hume categorised two kinds of knowledge as being either
Analytic or Synthetic statements
Analytic Statements
(Tautologies)
Synthetic statements
(Empirical statements)
Explain `relation of ideas’
Explain `matters of fact’
Formal, abstract
knowledge
e.g. Mathematics
2 + 2 = 4, and Logic
Derived from the five
sense - empirical
knowledge based on
impressions from sense
experience.
Verification Principle
(Criterion for meaningful statements)
A.J. Ayer, “A statements is either analytic or synthetic to be meaningful”
Tautologies Two Types of Statement Empirical
(Analytic)
(Synthetic)
True by
Sense
experience
Logical
Positivists
definition
(20 century)
Scientific
Verification
e.g. Maths,
observation
Principle
Grammar
th
Ethical statements:
Neither True or False according to Verification
Principle, therefore meaningless
Problems of Emotivism
Verification Principle does
not pass its own test!
Verification Principle determines whether
statements are meaningful
Meaningful statements are either tautological
or empirical
Verification Principle is neither tautological or
empirical
Therefore the verification principle is itself
MEANINGLESS
Emotions Influence Knowledge Claims
With regards to the abortion debate it is interesting to note
that the contentious issue, “Is the foetus a life with
potential or a potential life.”
The difficulty arises in so far as
people’s emotions colour their
interpretation of the evidence.
Peter Singer believes the
foetus is of little moral value,
lacking personhood.
Whilst the Pope believes it is
an innocent human being
from the moment of
conception.
Challenges to Emotivism
Emotions:
based
on
Beliefs
Philippa Foot
G.J. Warnock
G.J. Warnock
Philippa Foot
•Ethics is not
•Emotions are based
Emotions
concerned with
on beliefs.
Based on
•If one can show Beliefs or Reason emotions but
so emotions
whether claims are
beliefs are inaccurate
can change
valid; can be
it is possible to
supported by
change emotions.
reasoned argument.
Emotions Based on Beliefs
(Open to Rational Challenge?)
•When Osama Bin Laden claims he is
killing innocent people because he
believes it is the will of Allah…
One might rationally ague against this
by appealing to the writing of the
Koran which condemns the killing of
innocent life.
If it can be shown that emotions are
based on incorrect beliefs such
emotions should be abandoned.
PRESCRIPTIVISM
(Non-cognitive)
R.M. Hare
Descriptivism
Ethical language
simply describes
choices people make.
Rejected
I
N
S
T
E
A
D
Emotivism
Ethical language
expresses the
subjective
individual’s emotions
PRESCRIPTIVISM
•Must have a logical, syllogistic, structure
•No objective right or wrong, but
•Ethical language is action guiding
•Universalise moral principles
Prescriptivism – A Kantian Influence
Hare’s idea of universalising moral maxims can be
seen to have its roots in Kant’s categorical imperative.
At the heart of prescriptivism is the importance of logic
and consistency within ethics.
For Hare it is inconsistent to advocate a moral approach
and yet not be prepared to assert that others in a similar
situation should not act in a similar fashion. Reason and
logic would suggest that universal application is central
to ethics.
Problems of Prescriptivism
Too General…allows for universal evils?
As with Kant’s categorical imperative it is possible for
prescriptivism to universalise moral maxims which are
intrinsically evil.
For example, Hitler’s desire to universalise the genocide
of the Jews would be logically acceptable for those who
support prescriptivism.
Hare recognises the importance of putting oneself in the
other’s position, so being able to universalise one’s
moral maxims. However, if one is fanatical it might be
assumed that one would think the particular group
deserved to be punished.
A Possible Way Forward
Naturalism
Intuitionism
Emotivism
?
Prescriptivism
Geoffrey
Warnock
Entropy / Anti-Entropy
Hobbes
G.J. Warnock
Entropy Principle of Social Relations
This theory points to the limitations of
resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality
and sympathy. As a consequence the social
fabric tends to fall apart, producing a state of
nature in which chaos reigns; classically
outlined by Thomas Hobbes.
Geoffrey Warnock considered that it was the role
of ethics do offer an anti-entropic response, to
offer order and structure within society.
Entropy / Anti-Entropy
Hobbes
G.J. Warnock
Ethics is Anti-entropic
G.J. Warnock counteracts limited
sympathies by upholding virtues which
help make for an ordered society:
1. Non-maleficience: non harm
2. Beneficience: social cooperation
3. Impartiality: upholding justice
4. Truthfulness: so avoiding self-deception
Such principles offer a vision for human flourishing.
For Warnock whilst morality is not absolute, it is objective.