Transcript Trees. (For the Envirothon)

Trees. (For the
Envirothon)
By Patrick Sopko
Eastern Hemlock
LEAVES
Evergreen needles occur singly, appearing 2-ranked on twigs, flattened,
about 1/2" long, dark green and glossy, light green with 2 white lines below
TWIGS
Slender, tough, yellowish brown to grayish brown. Buds egg shaped, 1/16"
long, reddish brown.
FRUIT
Cones 3/4" long, egg-shaped, hanging singly from the tips of twigs. Under
each scale are 2 small, winged seeds
.BARK
Flaky on young trees, gray brown to red brown, thick and roughly grooved
when older.
Eastern Hemlock Info
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Drought is probably the most serious damaging
agent to eastern hemlock, especially during the
seedling stage. Winter drying caused by excessive
transpiration on warm, windy days has caused
severe needle injury.
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In later stages of stand development, heavy cuttings
predispose trees to windthrow because of their
shallow rooting habit. Older trees are susceptible to
radial stress cracks and ring shake, particularly in
partially cut stands (19). Eastern hemlock is sensitive
to salt spray or drift and sulfur fumes and is one of the
species most often struck by lightning (16,25).
Damaging Agents
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Damaging Agents- Seeds of eastern hemlock are sensitive to
damage from several molds, particularly Botrytis spp., that reduce
or delay germination (23). Some molds are borne internally while
others colonize the seeds during germination. In one study, the
fungus Aureobasidum pullulans was isolated from 73 percent of the
seedcoats. In another test this mold was isolated twice from the
embryonic tissue and 13 times from the seedcoat. Generally, molds
are less injurious than desiccation during the germination and
seedling stages.
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The most damaging agents to young seedlings, other than
desiccation, are damping-off fungi and root rots (16). Pythium spp.
and Rhizoctonia spp. flourish in wet, poorly drained soils and in welldrained soils, respectively, and are common on eastern hemlock.
At least three root rots- Cylindrocladium scoparium, Rhizina
undulata (common on burn areas), and Fusarium moniliforme- are
common on eastern hemlock. F. moniliforme has been isolated
from embryonic tissue and seedcoats as well as in the soil (16,23).
Continued….
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Several diseases affect the needles and twigs of eastern hemlock. The rust
caused by Melampsora farlowii is one of the most damaging. It causes shoot
blight and curls and attacks the cone often resulting in cone abortion. Three
rusts caused by M. abietiscanadensis, Pucciniastrum hydrangeae, and P.
vaccinii spp. affect only the needles. Single needle browning throughout the
crown is caused by Fabrella tsugae. Lower foliage in very wet and shady
areas often has a grayish mat appearance on both the needles and twigs
caused by Rosellinia herpotrichioides. Dimerosporium tsugae occasionally
forms a black, sooty growth on the needles.
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Living heartwood of eastern hemlock is attacked by Tyromyces borealis,
particularly in the northeast, leaving white flecks in the wood. Pholiota
adiposa is fairly common in the Lake States and causes a cavity along the
pith axis. Other rots are the trunk rot caused by Haematostereum
sanguinolentum; a brown, red ring rot caused by Phellinus pini; and a red
heart rot caused by P. robustus. The red-varnish-topped fungus, Ganoderma
tsugae, is the most common decayer of stumps and old logs
Continued More…
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Numerous fungi are associated with the root system but rarely
develop conks or kill trees. The most common are the shoestring
fungus, Armillaria mellea, and the velvet top fungi, Phaeolus
schweinitzii, Tyromyces balsameus, and Heterobasidion annosum.
At least two mycorrhiza are known to occur on the roots (16).
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Although at least 24 insects attack eastern hemlock, few are
economically important. The most important is the hemlock borer,
Melanophila fulvoguttata, which attacks weakened trees.
Symptoms usually consist of woodpecker-like holes in the bark,
galleries filled with dark excrement, and yellowing shoot tips (27).
Spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana, defoliates and kills
hemlock after defoliating all the balsam fir in the stand.
Continued Even More…
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The hemlock looper, Lambdina fiscellaria fiscellaria, devours part of the
needle after which the remainder turns brown. In nurseries, white grubs of the
strawberry root weevil, Otiorhynchus ovatus, consume the roots, and larvae of
the black vine weevil, O. sulcatus, feed on the needles (40). In the eastern
States the hemlock scale, Abgrallaspis ithacae, damages young shade trees,
and the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, kills understory trees.
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Numerous animals feed on eastern hemlock and often cause serious
damage, marked loss of vigor, or even death. White-tailed deer readily
browse this species although it has been ranked seventh in winter food
preference. In some regions, patches of regeneration have been eliminated
following heavy browsing in years when deer populations are high. Although
deer have been blamed for the absence of eastern hemlock in many
localities, no regeneration occurred under similar conditions in fenced areas;
thus, overstory-site-temperature requirements are presumably more critical
(2,6,8).
Continued even more further...
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Snowshoe hares and New England cottontails frequently
browse eastern hemlock. Mice, voles, squirrels, and other
rodents also feed on seeds and small seedlings both under
natural stands and in nurseries (1). Porcupines occasionally
gnaw the bark on larger trees causing serious wounds and
top-kill (4). Sapsuckers have been associated with ring
shake in some areas (19,21).
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Small eastern hemlock trees are highly susceptible to
wildfire but prescribed burns are beneficial for securing
natural regeneration. The thick bark of older trees is resistant
to light burns but saplings are usually destroyed. Root injury
often occurs from high intensity fires because of heavy litter
accumulation.
Management Practices
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One of the concerns of forest managers is
predicting when stands infested with hemlock
woolly adelgid will experience damage and
mortality. Until effective biological controls,
tree resistance, or practical chemical pesticides
can be developed (see the section on controlling
hemlock woolly adelgid), managers should
anticipate damage to hemlock stands within
several years of the initial infestation.
Fortunately, steps can be taken to
speed recovery and minimize the
impact that the loss of hemlock
will have on ecosystem functions
and esthetic values. To avoid crisis
management, these steps should be
initiated before the onset of widespread
hemlock decline and mortality. As
noted above, there are several years
between initial infestation and marked
stand mortality. Thus, there is usually
ample time for thorough planning.
Tree Parts and Functions
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Background Information:
Crown—part of the tree that consists of the leaves
and the branches at the top of a tree.
Leaves—food factories of the tree. The leaves
contain chlorophyll which gives leaves their green
color and is responsible for photosynthesis. During
photosynthesis, leaves use energy from the sun to
convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
water from the soil into sugar and oxygen. The sugar
(which is the tree’s food) is either used or stored in
the branches, in the trunk, or in the roots. The oxygen
is released into the atmosphere.
Continued…
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Trunk (Stem)—supports the leaves and the branches of the tree and
also contains the xylem, the cambium, the phloem, and the
heartwood.
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Heartwood—inner core of dead wood that supports the tree. As a
tree grows, older xylem cells in the center of the tree become
inactive and die, forming the heartwood.
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Sapwood (Xylem)—the youngest layer of wood that transports
water and minerals up the tree to the branches and the leaves.
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Cambium—the part growing layer that is only one to two cells thick.
It makes new cells during the growing season that eventually
become part of the phloem, of the xylem, or more cambium. The
cambium is what makes the trunk, branches, and roots grow larger
in diameter.
Continued more…
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Inner Bark (Phloem)—carries nutrients and sugar from leaves down
the tree to its branches, trunk, and roots.
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Outer Bark—protects the tree from injury, disease, insects, and
weather.
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Taproot—long main root that anchors the tree and absorbs water
and nutrients from deep in the soil. It helps to support the tree. (Not
all types of trees have a taproot.)
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Lateral Roots—underground roots that get smaller and smaller. They
take in water and nutrients and help to support the tree. (All trees
have lateral roots.)
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Annual Tree Rings—records the tree’s age. Every year a tree grows
a little more and a new tree ring is made.
Photosynthesis.
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Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy
and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some
algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to
make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts,
specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in photosynthesis.
The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O (+
light energy) C6H12O6 + 6O2. This is the source of the O2 we breathe, and
thus, a significant factor in the concerns about deforestation.
Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs
in stems, etc. The parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower
epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundle(s) (veins), and the stomates.
The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts, thus
photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the
rest of the leaf. The stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower
epidermis and are for air exchange: they let CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular
bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant's transportation system, moving
water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells have
chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs.
Photosynthesis Continued…
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Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making
these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green light
which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making chlorophyll
appear green. However, it is the energy from the red and blue light that
are absorbed that is, thereby, able to be used to do photosynthesis. The
green light we can see is not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and
thus cannot be used to do photosynthesis.
The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6CO2 +
6H2O (+ light energy) C6H12O6 + 6O2. This is the source of the O2 we
breathe, and thus, a significant factor in the concerns about
deforestation.
Conifers and Angiosperms.
 Conifers:
Have seeds on their needles and
seeds
 Angiosperms: Have reproductive
organisms inside of them. They are usually
flowering plants.
Deciduous Trees
 Deciduous
trees have their leaves fall off
in the winter and bear flowers or fruits, as
opposed to conifers, which have cones
and needles and do not lose their
needles.
Benefits of Forests.
 Forests
give habitat to the wildlife and
provide food for them. The plants in the
forests give us oxygen. They are also very
supercilious to walk in.
Trees By their leaves.
 Red
Maple
Shagbark Hickory
 Red
Oak
American Beech
More leaves
 White
Oak
Sassafras
 Large
Tooth Aspen
Tulip Poplar
Black Birch
More leaves
White Pine
Black Spruce
Hemlock
Pitch Pine
Norway Spruce
More Leaves
 Virginia
 Red
Pines
Pine
Ha.
 You
are welcome for such an amazing
PowerPoint.