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Plant Form and
Physiology
The Plant Body
Stems
Roots
Leaves
Plant Development
Plant Form and Physiology
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Plant Form and
Physiology
(continued)
Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
Plant Defense Mechanisms
Plant Form and Physiology
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Plant Form and Physiology > The Plant Body
The Plant Body
• Plant Tissues and Organ Systems
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Plant Form and Physiology > Stems
Stems
• Functions of Stems
• Stem Anatomy
• Primary and Secondary Growth in Stems
• Stem Modifications
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Plant Form and Physiology > Roots
Roots
• Types of Root Systems and Zones of Growth
• Root Modifications
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Plant Form and Physiology > Leaves
Leaves
• Leaf Structure and Arrangment
• Types of Leaf Forms
• Leaf Structure, Function, and Adaptation
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Plant Form and Physiology > Plant Development
Plant Development
• Meristems
• Genetic Control of Flowers
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Plant Form and Physiology > Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
• Water and Solute Potential
• Pressure, Gravity, and Matric Potential
• Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
• Transportation of Photosynthates in the Phloem
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Plant Form and Physiology > Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
• Plant Responses to Light
• The Phytochrome System and Red Light Response
• Blue Light Response
• Plant Responses to Gravity
• Auxins, Cytokinins, and Gibberellins
• Abscisic Acid, Ethylene, and Nontraditional Hormones
• Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
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Plant Form and Physiology > Plant Defense Mechanisms
Plant Defense Mechanisms
• Plant Defenses Against Herbivores
• Plant Defenses Against Pathogens
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Appendix
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Plant Form and Physiology
Key terms
• abscisic acid a plant hormone that functions in many plant developmental processes, including bud dormancy, inhibition of seed
germination, and plant stress tolerance.
• amyloplast a non-pigmented organelle found in some plant cells that is responsible for the synthesis and storage of starch
granules through the polymerization of glucose
• angiosperm a plant whose ovules are enclosed in an ovary
• apical situated at the growing tip of the plant or its roots, in comparison with intercalary growth situated between zones of
permanent tissue
• apical meristem the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant
where growth can take place at the tip of a root or shoot.
• auxin a class of plant growth hormones that is responsible for elongation in phototropism and gravitropism and for other growth
processes in the plant life cycle
• auxin a class of plant growth hormones that is responsible for elongation in phototropism and gravitropism and for other growth
processes in the plant life cycle
• axillary bud embryonic shoot that lies at the junction of the stem and petiole that gives rise to a branch or flower
• biennial a plant that requires two years to complete its life cycle
• bulb the bulb-shaped root portion of a plant such as a tulip, from which the rest of the plant may be regrown
• bulbil a bulb-shaped bud in the place of a flower or in a leaf axil
• cavitation the formation, in a fluid, of vapor bubbles that can interrupt water flow through the plant
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Plant Form and Physiology
• chromophore the group of atoms in a molecule in which the electronic transition responsible for a given spectral band is located
• cladode green branches of limited growth which have taken up the functions of photosynthesis
• cohesion–tension theory of sap ascent explains the process of water flow upwards (against the force of gravity) through the
xylem of plants
• collenchyma a supporting ground tissue just under the surface of various leaf structures formed before vascular differentiation
• compound leaf a leaf where the blade is divided, forming leaflets
• corm a short, vertical, swollen underground stem of a plant that serves as a storage organ to enable the plant to survive winter
or other adverse conditions such as drought
• cortex the tissue of a stem or root that lies inward from the epidermis, but exterior to the vascular tissue
• cryptochrome any of several light-sensitive flavoproteins, in the protoreceptors of plants, that regulate germination, elongation,
and photoperiodism
• cuticle a noncellular protective covering outside the epidermis of many invertebrates and plants
• cytokinin any of a class of plant hormones involved in cell growth and division
• epiphyte a plant that grows on another, using it as a physical support but neither obtaining nutrients from it nor causing it any
damage if also offering no benefit
• ethylene a plant hormone that is involved in fruit ripening, flower wilting, and leaf fall
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Plant Form and Physiology
• germination the beginning of vegetation or growth from a seed or spore
• gibberellin any of a class of diterpene plant growth hormones that stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and fruit and
flower maturation
• gravitropism a plant's ability to change its growth in response to gravity
• internode a section of stem between two stem nodes
• jasmonate any of several esters of jasmonic acid that act as plant hormones
• lamina the flat part of a leaf; the blade, which is the widest part of the leaf
• lenticel small, oval, rounded spots upon the stem or branch of a plant that allow the exchange of gases with the surrounding
atmosphere
• lignin a complex, non-carbohydrate, aromatic polymer present in all wood
• meristem the plant tissue composed of totipotent cells that allows plant growth
• meristem the plant tissue composed of totipotent cells that allows plant growth
• meristem the plant tissue composed of totipotent cells that allows plant growth
• mesophyll the inner tissue (parenchyma) of a leaf, containing many chloroplasts.
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Plant Form and Physiology
• node points of attachment for leaves, aerial roots, and flowers
• palmately compound leaf leaf that has its leaflets radiating outwards from the end of the petiole
• parenchyma the ground tissue making up most of the non-woody parts of a plant
• parenchyma the ground tissue making up most of the non-woody parts of a plant
• perennial a plant that is active throughout the year or survives for more than two growing seasons
• periderm the outer layer of plant tissue; the outer bark
• petiole stalk that extends from the stem to the base of the leaf
• petiole stalk that extends from the stem to the base of the leaf
• phloem a vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of sugars and nutrients manufactured in the
shoot
• phloem a vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of sugars and nutrients manufactured in the
shoot
• photomorphogenesis the regulatory effect of light on the growth, development and differentiation of plant cells, tissues and
organs
• photoperiodism the growth, development and other responses of plants and animals according to the length of day and/or night
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Plant Form and Physiology
• photoperiodism the growth, development and other responses of plants and animals according to the length of day and/or night
• photoreceptor a specialized protein that is able to detect and react to light
• photosynthate any compound that is a product of photosynthesis
• phototropin any of a class of photoreceptor flavoproteins that mediate phototropism in higher plants
• phototropism the movement of a plant toward or away from light
• phytochrome any of a class of pigments that control most photomorphogenic responses in higher plants
• pinnately compound leaf a leaf where the leaflets are arranged along the middle vein
• pith the soft spongy substance in the center of the stems of many plants and trees
• primordium an aggregation of cells that is the first stage in the development of an organ
• radicle the rudimentary shoot of a plant that supports the cotyledons in the seed and from which the root is developed
downward; the root of the embryo
• rhizome a horizontal underground stem of some plants that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes
• sclereid a reduced form of sclerenchyma cells with highly-thickened, lignified walls
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Plant Form and Physiology
• sclerenchyma a mechanical, supportive ground tissue in plants consisting of aggregates of cells having thick, often mineralized
walls
• sepal a part of an angiosperm, and one of the component parts of the calyx; collectively the sepals are called the calyx (plural
calyces), the outermost whorl of parts that form a flower
• sieve-tube element a type of plant cell located in the phloem that is involved in the movement of carbohydrates
• simple leaf a leaf with an undivided blade
• sink where sugars are delivered in a plant, such as the roots, young shoots, and developing seeds
• skototropism growth or movement away from light
• solute potential (osmotic potential) pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across
a semipermeable membrane
• source structure that produces photosynthates
• stamen in flowering plants, the structure in a flower that produces pollen, typically consisting of an anther and a filament
• statolith a specialized form of amyloplast involved in graviperception by plant roots and most invertebrates
• stipule small green appendage usually found at the base of the petiole
• stolon a shoot that grows along the ground and produces roots at its nodes; a runner
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Plant Form and Physiology
• stoma a pore found in the leaf and stem epidermis used for gaseous exchange
• suberin a waxy material found in bark that can repel water
• succulent having fleshy leaves or other tissues that store water
• tendril a thin, spirally-coiling stem that attaches a plant to its support
• thigmomorphogenesis the response by plants to mechanical sensation (touch) by altering their growth patterns
• thigmonastic response a touch response independent of the direction of stimulus
• thigmotropism plant growth or motion in response to touch
• thorn a sharp, protective spine of a plant
• tracheid elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts
• tracheid elongated cells in the xylem of vascular plants that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts
• transpiration the loss of water by evaporation in terrestrial plants, especially through the stomata; accompanied by a
corresponding uptake from the roots
• trichome a hair- or scale-like extension of the epidermis of a plant
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Plant Form and Physiology
• trichome a hair- or scale-like extension of the epidermis of a plant
• trichome a hair- or scale-like extension of the epidermis of a plant
• tuber a fleshy, thickened, underground stem of a plant, usually containing stored starch, as for example a potato or arrowroot
• turgor pressure pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall of plant; caused by the osmotic flow of water from outside of
the cell into the cell's vacuole
• undifferentiated describes tissues where the individual cells have not yet developed mature or distinguishing features, or
describes embryonic organisms where the organs cannot be identified
• verticil a whorl; a group of similar parts such as leaves radiating from a shared axis
• water potential the potential energy of water per unit volume; designated by ψ
• whorl a circle of three or more leaves, flowers, or other organs, about the same part or joint of a stem
• xylem a vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of water and minerals taken up by the roots; also
the primary component of wood
• xylem a vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of water and minerals taken up by the roots; also
the primary component of wood
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Plant Form and Physiology
Blue light response of azure bluets
Azure bluets (Houstonia caerulea) display a phototropic response by bending toward the light.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Venation patterns
(a) Tulip (Tulipa), a monocot, has leaves with parallel venation. (b) The netlike venation in this linden (Tilia cordata) leaf distinguishes it as a dicot. (c)
The Ginkgo biloba tree has dichotomous venation.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Gravitropism
This is an image of an upright tree with high curvature at the base as a result of negative gravitropism. Despite being tilted, amyloplasts will cause the
shoot to grow in a vertical direction.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Main types of root systems
(a) Tap root systems have a main root that grows down, while (b) fibrous root systems consist of many small roots.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Collenchyma cells in plants
Collenchyma cell walls are uneven in thickness, as seen in this light micrograph. They provide support to plant structures.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Simple and compound leaves
Leaves may be simple or compound. In simple leaves, the lamina is continuous. (a) The banana plant (Musa sp.) has simple leaves. In compound
leaves, the lamina is separated into leaflets. Compound leaves may be palmate or pinnate. (b) In palmately compound leaves, such as those of the
horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), the leaflets branch from the petiole. (c) In pinnately compound leaves, the leaflets branch from the midrib, as
on a scrub hickory (Carya floridana). (d) The honey locust has double compound leaves, in which leaflets branch from the veins.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Stem modifications
Stem modifications enable plants to thrive in a variety of environments. Shown are (a) ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizomes, (b) a carrion flower
(Amorphophallus titanum) corm (c) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) stolons, (d) strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) runners, (e) potato (Solanum tuberosum)
tubers, and (f) red onion (Allium) bulbs.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Stomata
Openings called stomata (singular: stoma) allow a plant to take up carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water vapor. The (a) colorized scanningelectron micrograph shows a closed stoma of a dicot. Each stoma is flanked by two guard cells that regulate its (b) opening and closing. The (c) guard
cells sit within the layer of epidermal cells.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Example of lenticels
Lenticels on the bark of this cherry tree enable the woody stem to exchange gases with the surrounding atmosphere.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Turgor pressure
When (a) total water potential (Ψtotal) is lower outside the cells than inside, water moves out of the cells and the plant wilts. When (b) the total water
potential is higher outside the plant cells than inside, water moves into the cells, resulting in turgor pressure (Ψp), keeping the plant erect.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Zones of the root tip
A longitudinal view of the root reveals the zones of cell division, elongation, and maturation. Cell division occurs in the apical meristem.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Parts of a leaf
A leaf may seem simple in appearance, but it is a highly-efficient structure. Petioles, stipules, veins, and a midrib are all essential structures of a leaf.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Storage roots
Many vegetables, such as carrots and beets, are modified roots that store food and water.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Phytochrome system
The biologically-inactive form of phytochrome (Pr) is converted to the biologically-active form Pfr under illumination with red light. Far-red light and
darkness convert the molecule back to the inactive form.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Effect of gibberellins on grapes
In grapes, application of gibberellic acid increases the size of fruit and loosens clustering.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Phototropism of an orchid plant
This orchid plant placed next to a window grows toward the sunlight through the window. This is an example of positive phototropism.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Meristematic zones
Each zone of the apical meristem has a particular function. Pictured here are the (1) central zone, (2) peripheral zone, (3) medullary meristem and (3)
medullary tissue.
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Plant Form and Physiology
ABC model of flower development
Class A genes (blue) affect sepals and petals, class B genes (yellow) affect petals and stamens, class C genes (red) affect stamens and carpels.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Parenchyma cells in plants
The stem of common St John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) is shown in cross section in this light micrograph. The central pith (greenish-blue, in the
center) and peripheral cortex (narrow zone 3–5 cells thick, just inside the epidermis) are composed of parenchyma cells. Vascular tissue composed of
xylem (red) and phloem tissue (green, between the xylem and cortex) surrounds the pith.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Vascular bundles
In (a) dicot stems, vascular bundles are arranged around the periphery of the ground tissue. The xylem tissue is located toward the interior of the
vascular bundle; phloem is located toward the exterior. Sclerenchyma fibers cap the vascular bundles. In (b) monocot stems, vascular bundles
composed of xylem and phloem tissues are scattered throughout the ground tissue.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Translocation to the phloem
Phloem is comprised of cells called sieve-tube elements. Phloem sap travels through perforations called sieve tube plates. Neighboring companion cells
carry out metabolic functions for the sieve-tube elements and provide them with energy. Lateral sieve areas connect the sieve-tube elements to the
companion cells.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Cross section of a squash stem showing a vascular bundle
This light micrograph shows a cross section of a squash (Curcurbita maxima) stem. Each teardrop-shaped vascular bundle consists of large xylem
vessels toward the inside and smaller phloem cells toward the outside. Xylem cells, which transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the
plant, are dead at functional maturity. Phloem cells, which transport sugars and other organic compounds from photosynthetic tissue to the rest of the
plant, are living. The vascular bundles are encased in ground tissue and surrounded by dermal tissue.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Annual growth rings
The rate of wood growth increases in summer and decreases in winter, producing a characteristic ring for each year of growth. Seasonal changes in
weather patterns can also affect the growth rate. Note how the rings vary in thickness.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Primary and secondary growth
In woody plants, primary growth is followed by secondary growth, which allows the plant stem to increase in thickness or girth. Secondary vascular
tissue is added as the plant grows, as well as a cork layer. The bark of a tree extends from the vascular cambium to the epidermis.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Trichomes
Trichomes give leaves a fuzzy appearance as in this (a) sundew (Drosera sp.). Leaf trichomes include (b) branched trichomes on the leaf of Arabidopsis
lyrata and (c) multibranched trichomes on a mature Quercus marilandica leaf.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Sclerenchyma cells in plants
The central pith and outer cortex of the (a) flax stem are made up of parenchyma cells. Inside the cortex is a layer of sclerenchyma cells, which make up
the fibers in flax rope and clothing. Humans have grown and harvested flax for thousands of years. In (b) this drawing, fourteenth-century women
prepare linen. The (c) flax plant is grown and harvested for its fibers, which are used to weave linen, and for its seeds, which are the source of linseed
oil.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Water potential in plants
With heights nearing 116 meters, (a) coastal redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) are the tallest trees in the world. Plant roots can easily generate enough
force to (b) buckle and break concrete sidewalks.
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OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0
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Plant Form and Physiology
Solute potential
In this example with a semipermeable membrane between two aqueous systems, water will move from a region of higher to lower water potential until
equilibrium is reached. Solutes (Ψs), pressure (Ψp), and gravity (Ψg) influence total water potential for each side of the tube (Ψtotal right or left) and,
therefore, the difference between Ψtotal on each side (Δ). (Ψm , the potential due to interaction of water with solid substrates, is ignored in this example
because glass is not especially hydrophilic). Water moves in response to the difference in water potential between two systems (the left and right sides
of the tube).
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Plant Form and Physiology
Time-lapse of pea shoot and root growth
Time-lapse of a pea plant growing from seed, showing both the shoot and root system. The roots grown downward in the direction of gravity, which is
positive gravitropism, and the shoot grows upward away from gravity, which is negative gravitropism.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Phototropism and the distribution of auxin
Phototropism is the growth of plants in response to light. When the sun is positioned almost directly over the plant, the hormone auxin (pink dots) in the
plant stem is evenly distributed. As the sun moves, the auxin is repositioned on the other side of the plant. This overload of auxin next to these cells
causes them to start to grow or elongate, tipping the growth of the stem toward the light.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Thigmotropism in a redvine
Tendrils of a redvine produce auxin in response to touching a support stick and then transfer the auxin to non-touching cells. The non-touching cells
elongate faster to curl around the support stick.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Parts of a stem
Leaves are attached to the plant stem at areas called nodes. An internode is the stem region between two nodes. The petiole is the stalk connecting the
leaf to the stem. The leaves just above the nodes arise from axillary buds.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Cohesion–Tension Theory of Sap Ascent
The cohesion–tension theory of sap ascent is shown. Evaporation from the mesophyll cells produces a negative water potential gradient that causes
water to move upwards from the roots through the xylem.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Reducing Transpiration
Plants are suited to their local environment. (a) Xerophytes, like this prickly pear cactus (Opuntia sp.) and (b) epiphytes such as this tropical
Aeschynanthus perrottetii have adapted to very limited water resources. The leaves of a prickly pear are modified into spines, which lowers the surfaceto-volume ratio and reduces water loss. Photosynthesis takes place in the stem, which also stores water. (b) A. perrottetii leaves have a waxy cuticle that
prevents water loss. (c) Goldenrod (Solidago sp.) is a mesophyte, well suited for moderate environments. (d) Hydrophytes, like this fragrant water lily
(Nymphaea odorata), are adapted to thrive in aquatic environments.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Aerial roots
The (a) banyan tree, also known as the strangler fig, begins life as an epiphyte in a host tree. Aerial roots extend to the ground, supporting the growing
plant, which eventually strangles the host tree. The (b) screwpine develops aerial roots that help support the plant in sandy soils.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Aerial modifications of stems
Found in southeastern United States, (a) buckwheat vine (Brunnichia ovata) is a weedy plant that climbs with the aid of tendrils. This one is shown
climbing up a wooden stake. (b) Thorns are modified branches.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Translocation to the sink
Sucrose is actively transported from source cells into companion cells and then into the sieve-tube elements. This reduces the water potential, which
causes water to enter the phloem from the xylem. The resulting positive pressure forces the sucrose-water mixture down toward the roots, where
sucrose is unloaded. Transpiration causes water to return to the leaves through the xylem vessels.
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OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants. October 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0
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Plant Form and Physiology
Anatomy of a flower
Mature flowers aid in reproduction for the plant. In order to achieve reproduction, the plant must become sexually mature, the apical meristem must
become a floral meristem, and the flower must develop its individual reproductive organs.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Mesophyll
(a) (top) The central mesophyll is sandwiched between an upper and lower epidermis. The mesophyll has two layers: an upper palisade layer and a
lower spongy layer. Stomata on the leaf underside allow gas exchange. A waxy cuticle covers all aerial surfaces of land plants to minimize water loss.
(b) (bottom) These leaf layers are clearly visible in the scanning electron micrograph. The numerous small bumps in the palisade parenchyma cells are
chloroplasts. The bumps protruding from the lower surface of the leaf are glandular trichomes.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Xylem and phloem
This scanning electron micrograph shows xylem and phloem in the leaf vascular bundle.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Date ripening
The plant hormone ethylene promotes ripening, as seen in the ripening of dates.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Example plant organ systems
The shoot system of a plant consists of leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. The root system anchors the plant while absorbing water and minerals from
the soil.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Apical meristem
The apical meristem, pictured in the center of the leaves of this image, is also termed the "growing tip". Its main function is to begin growth of new cells in
young seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots (forming buds, among other things).
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Plant Form and Physiology
Foxgloves
Foxgloves produce several deadly chemicals, namely cardiac and steroidal glycosides. Ingestion can cause nausea, vomiting, hallucinations,
convulsions, or death.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Acacia collinsii
The large thorn-like stipules of Acacia collinsii are hollow and offer shelter for ants, which in return protect the plant against herbivores.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Modified leaves on a cactus
The spines on cactus plants are modified leaves that act as a mechanical defense against predators.
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Plant Form and Physiology
Attribution
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Plant Form and Physiology
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• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013."
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Plant Form and Physiology
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• Wikipedia. "cohesion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cohesion?tension+theory+of+sap+ascent
Plant Form and Physiology
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Plant Form and Physiology
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Plant Form and Physiology
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