Transcript Domains

Unit 8, 9, 10 Review
• There are 6 Kingdoms, in 3 different
Domains:
– Domain Archaea:
• Kingdom Archaebacteria: prokaryotes that seem
to have diverged very early from bacteria. More
closely related to Eukaryotes than bacteria.
– Domain Bacteria:
• Kingdom Eubacteria: prokaryotes that have the
same kind of lipid in their cell membranes as do
eukaryotes.
– Domain Eukarya:
• Kingdoms:
– Protista: Eukaryotes that are not fungi,
plants, or animals. Unicellular or multicellular.
– Fungi: mostly multi-cellular eukaryotes with
chitin in their cell walls.
– Plantae: complex multi-cellular organisms
that produce their own food.
– Animalia: complex multi-cellular organisms
that eat other organisms for food.
» Vertebrates: an animal with a backbone
» Invertebrates: an animal with no
backbone
Kingdoms
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Domains and Kingdoms
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Classifying Organisms
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There are eight levels of classification.
Similar genera are grouped into a family.
Similar families are grouped into an order.
Similar orders are grouped into a class.
Similar classes are grouped into a phylum.
Similar phyla are grouped into a kingdom.
Similar kingdom are grouped into
domains.
• Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Genus Species
• Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security
• Daring Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk
Groups at the top are more
inclusive!
Groups towards the bottom are
less inclusive!
Observations from fossils,
comparative morphology, and
comparative biochemistry are
used to construct taxonomic
systems and to organism
organisms into these various
groups.
Adaptations of Plants
• The first plants lived near water,
where drying out was not a
problem.
• Eventually, plants developed traits
to allow them to live in drier
habitats.
– Cuticle: a waxy, watertight covering
that reduces water loss
• Covers the non-woody aboveground
plant parts
– Stomata (singular: stomata): pores
that permit plants to exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
– Guard Cells: Specialized cells that
border stoma
• Stomata open and close as the guard
cells change shape
Plant Tissue Types
1. Dermal Tissue: the
protective outer layer of a
plant.
2. Ground Tissue: makes up
much of the inside of the
non-woody parts of a
plant, including roots,
stems, and leaves.
3. Vascular Tissue: tissues
that distribute materials
efficiently through the
plant.
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Xylem
Phloem
Conducting Tissue
• Vascular Plant: a plant with a
vascular system
– Vascular system: a system of welldeveloped vascular tissues that
distribute materials efficiently
through the plant in larger, complex
plants.
• Non-vascular Plant: a plant with
no vascular system.
• Types of Vascular Tissue:
– Phloem: soft-welled cells that
transport organic nutrients
– Xylem: hard-walled cells that
transport water in mineral nutrients
– The Xylem and the phloem are
contained in a strand of conducting
tissue called the Vascular Bundle.
Root Conducting Tissue
• Plants developed roots to absorb nutrients
– Roots are made of 3 types of tissue:
1. Epidermis: the outside layer
2. Vascular tissue: the conducting tissue, contains the xylem and
phloem
3. Cortex tissue: stores sugar and starch
– All roots have a protective covering at the end of the root
called a root cap, And tiny root hairs along the side of
the root that increase absorption of nutrients by
increasing surface area.
– Roots are divided into 2 categories based upon shape.
• Tap roots: large central roots from which many smaller
roots branch
• Fibrous root: highly branched root system
• Additionally, some plants also have roots that grow from
aboveground stems or leaves, which are called
adventitious roots.
Monocots and Dicots
• Monocots: flowering plants that
produce seeds with one seed leaf
– Most monocots also produce flowers
with parts that are in multiples of
three
– Have long, narrow leaves with parallel
veins
• Dicots: flowering plants that produce
seeds with two seed leaves
– Most dicots produce flowers with
parts in multiples of two, four, or five
– Have leaves with branching veins
Ground Tissue
• Makes up most of the
inside of plants.
• Can have different
functions:
– Leaf Ground Tissue: full of
chloroplasts for
photosynthesis
– Stem Ground Tissue: stores
water, sugar, and starch.
– Root Ground Tissue: sores
water, sugar, and starch.
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Flowers
Male Parts:
•Anther
•Filament
•The anther and
filament together
make up the
stamen.
Female Parts:
•Stigma
•Style
•Ovary
•The stigma, style,
and ovary together
make up the pistil.
Other Parts:
•Petal
•Sepal
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Movement of Water
• Water moves from the roots to the leaves in the xylem.
• Basically, water is pulled up through the plant through
transpiration pull as water evaporates.
• Transpiration: the loss of water vapor from a plant
• Root Pressure: root pressure, in plants, force that helps
to drive fluids upward into the water-conducting
vessels (xylem)
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Guard Cells and Transpiration
• A stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells that are shaped like
two cupped hands.
• Changes in water pressure within in the guard cells cause the
stoma to open or close.
• When the guard cells take in water, the swell, opening the stoma
an allowing transpiration to occur.
• When water leaves the guard cells, the shorten and move close to
each other, closing the stoma and stopping transpiration.
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Movement of Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds move
through a plant within the
phloem.
• Source: the part of a plant that
provides organic compounds for
other parts
– A leaf is a source because it
makes starch in photosynthesis
• Sink: the part of a plant that
organic compounds are
delivered to
– Actively growing areas are sinks
because they need sugar to grow
• Translocation: the movement of
organic compounds within a
plant from a source to a sink
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Pollination and Germination
• Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the male
reproductive structures of a plant to the female
reproductive structures of a plant.
• Germination: the beginning of growth or development
in a seed, spore, or zygote, especially after a period of
inactivity.
Pollina
tion
Germinat
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Seeds Sprout
• Seeds contain a plant embryo that is in a state of
suspended animation.
• Seeds sprout with a burst of growth in response to
certain changes in the environment.
– Examples: rising temperature, increased moisture
• Endosperm: a triploid tissue that develops in the
seeds of angiosperms and that provides food for a
developing embryo
Seeds
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Meristems
• Meristem: a region of undifferentiated plant cells that
are capable of dividing and developing into specialized
plant tissues.
• Primary Growth: growth that increases the length or
height of a plant.cell division.
• Secondary Growth: growth that increases the width of
stems and roots.
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Hormonal Control of Growth
• Plants bend
toward light
as they grow.
• Auxin: the
chemical that
causes the
stem to bend
towards light.
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Tropisms
• Tropism: a response in which a plant grows either
toward or away from a stimulus.
• Three Types of Tropisms:
– Phototropism: responses to light
• A plant bends towards light, this is called positive
phototrophism.
– Gravitropisms: responses to gravity
• The upward growth of shoots is a negative gravitropism;
the downward growth of roots is a positive gravitropism.
– Thigmotropism: response to touch
• The coiling of a grapevine around a wire is
thigmotropism.
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Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
• Arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart. Eventually blood is pushed
through to the much smaller capillaries.
• Capillaries: tiny blood vessels that allow the
exchange of gases, nutrients, hormones, and
other molecules in the blood. From the
capillaries, the blood flows into venules and
then veins.
• Veins: blood vessels that carry blood back to
the heart.
Three Types of Blood Cells
• Red Blood Cells: the majority of blood cells, these are
cells that carry oxygen. Also called erythrocytes.
• White Blood Cells: defend the body against disease.
• Platelets: help blood to clot, so that all of your blood
won’t leak out of your body!
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The Digestive System
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Mouth
Pharynx
Salivary Glands
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Duodenum
Rectum
Anus
Gallbladder
Liver
Pancreas
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Neurons and Synapses
• Neurons: nerve cells
• Dendrites: extend from nerve cell body
• Axon: Long membrane-covered extension
of cytoplasm that conducts nerve impulses
• Nerves: Bundles of axons
• Synapse: a junction at which a neuron
meets another
The Brain
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The Brain: The body’s main
processing center.
Cerebrum: controls learning,
memory, perception, and intellectual
function.
Cerebellum: regulates balance,
posture, and movement.
Brain Stem: important to
homeostasis; regulates heart rate,
breathing rate, body temperature.
Thalamus: sensory processing
Hypothalamus: help regulates
breathing, heart rate, hunger, thirst,
and the endocrine system
– The Hypothalamus is a great
example of the important
connection between the nervous
and endocrine systems.
The Spinal Cord: a dense cable of nervous
tissue that runs through the vertebral
column, starting at the medulla oblongata.
The Endocrine System
• Endocrine Glands:
ductless organs that
secrete hormones
directly into either the
bloodstream or the
fluid around cells
(extracellular fluid).
• All endocrine glands
and hormones together
make up the Endocrine
System.
Feedback Mechanisms
• The human body makes more than 40 hormones,
and it must regulate the release.
• The endocrine system plays an important role in
homeostasis: different hormones moving through
the bloodstream affect specific target tissues, and
the amounts of various hormones must be
maintained in a very narrow range.
• Feedback mechanisms detect the amount of
hormones in circulation and the endocrine
system then adjusts the amount of hormones
being made or released.
Negative Feedback
• Positive Feedback: when high levels of a hormone stimulate the output of
even MORE hormone.
– Example: the hormone that stimulates egg release also regulates the female
hormone estrogen. A rise in estrogen levels, however, will stimulate the
release of more of the regulatory hormone.
• Negative Feedback: a change in one direction stimulates the control
mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction.
– Controls most hormone release in humans.
– Example: high levels of a hormone inhibit the production of more hormone,
whereas low levels of a hormone stimulate the production of more hormone.
– The liver plays a role in negative feedback by removing the hormones from the
blood and breaking them down.
– Negative feedback works like trying to maintain a certain speed by pressing or
releasing the gas pedal.
In negative feedback, a
secondary substance
blocks production of its
initial stimulating
substance.
Succession
• Once new species start moving into this newly
formed habitat, they go through process called
succession.
• Succession: a somewhat regular progression of
species replacement
• Primary Succession: succession that occurs where
life has not existed before
– Volcanic island
• Secondary Succession: succession that occurs in
areas where there has been previous growth
– Abandoned field
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Trophic Levels
• Trophic Level: one of the steps in a food chain or pyramid.
• First Level (lowest level): producers which perform photosynthesis and sometimes
absorb nitrogen gas with the help of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
• Second Level: Herbivores, which eat primary producers. Use microorganisms to
help digest plant materials in their guts.
• Third Level: Secondary consumers; animals that eat other animals.
• Fourth Level: Tertiary Consumers; carnivores that eat other carnivores
• Detritivores: organisms that obtain their energy from the organic wastes produced
at all trophic levels.
– Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi are decomposers because they cause decay.
– Decay is very important because it allows for the recycling of nutrients.
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The Pyramid of Energy
• Ecologists often illustrate the flow of energy
through an ecosystem using an energy pyramid.
• Energy Pyramid: a diagram in which each Trophic
level is represented by blocks stacked one another.
– The width of the block indicates how much energy is
stored at each trophic level.
– Only about 1/10 of the energy in a trophic level is found
in the next trophic level, so it takes a pyramid shape.
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• Of all nonliving
components of an
ecosystem, water
has the greatest
impact on the
inhabitants:
• Precipitation (rain
and snow)
• Ground water
(water stored
under ground)
• Ultimately the
water cycle is
caused by heating
by the sun leading
to evaporation.
• Living Systems:
The Water Cycle
– Transpiration
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The Carbon Cycle
• Carbon cycles between the
nonliving environment and
living organisms.
• The nutrient cycling of
carbon is very closely
related to the cycling of
Oxygen (O2).
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
air/water is used by plants,
algae, or bacteria in
photosynthesis to make
new organic nutrients
(sugars). Carbon atoms can
return to the pool of CO2 in
the air and water in three
ways:
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3.
Respiration
Combustion
Erosion
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The Phosphorus Cycle
• Phosphorus is an essential part of our bodies.
– Essential for ATP and DNA creation.
• Phosphorous is usually stored in soil and rock as
calcium phosphate.
• It dissolves in water to form phosphate ions, PO43-.
• This phosphate is absorbed by the roots of plants
and used to build organic molecules.
• Animals eat the plants and reuse the organic
phosphorus.
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The Nitrogen Cycle
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• The atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen gas, N2.
• In spite of how much nitrogen is around us, most
organisms cannot use it in that form because of the
strong bonds between the two N atoms.
• Some bacteria can break the bond and make ammonia, NH3 in a
process called Nitrogen Fixation.
•Nitrogen Fixation: the
process by which
gaseous nitrogen is
converted into
ammonia, a compound
that organisms can use
to make amino acids.
•Nitrogen fixation is
performed by bacteria
that live in the soil and
root nodules (swellings)
of plants like alder trees.
Acid Rain
• Coal-burning power plants make
smoke with lots of sulfur, because
the coal contained lots of sulfur.
• Sulfur introduced into the
atmosphere combines with water
vapor to form sulfuric acid.
• Sulfuric acid carried back to
Earth’s surface in precipitation
(rain or snow) is called Acid Rain.
• Lowering the pH of water (making
it more acidic) can cause death of
organisms such as lake animals,
tree root fungi, and plant death.
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Ozone Destruction
• The ozone is being destroyed primarily by a class of
chemicals called Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are
normally stable.
• CFCs are used as coolants in refrigerators and air
conditions, as propellants in aerosol spray cans, and
foaming agents in plastic-foam creation.
• It turns out, high in the atmosphere where we find the
ozone layer, CFCs are not so stable.
• They lose a chlorine atom, which enters into a series of
reactions that destroy the Ozone (O3) and turn it into
regular Oxygen (O2).
• CFCS are now banned as aerosol can propellants in the
U.S.
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The Greenhouse Effect
• Our planet would be cold except that we have a layer of
Greenhouse Gases containing water vapor, carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide keeping it warm because
the bonds between these atoms absorbs solar energy as heat
radiates from earth. This is called the Greenhouse Effect.
– Greenhouse Effect: heat is trapped within the atmosphere of the
Earth in the same way that glass traps heat in a greenhouse.
• Due to the burning of fossil fuels, we have increased the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
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• Biological Magnification: the
accumulation of increasingly
large amounts of toxic
substances within each
successive link of the food
chain.
• In birds, DDT causes eggs to
be thin, and fragile—these
eggs often break.
• This was the worst in
predatory birds because they
are high in the food chain
and occupy a high trophic
level.
• As such, the numbers of
predatory birds dwindled.
• In 1972 the use of DDT was
restricted in the U.S.
Types of Chemical
Pollution
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Climate, Temperature, and Moisture