Transcript Rewards.ppsx

The Use of Rewards in
Education
What Would You Do for a
?
By Amy Taylor, Beth Koziol, & Kristin Hoffmann
Navigation Keys
Home (Introduction page)
Table of Contents
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Graphic Organizer
Internet Sources
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
All types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Table of Contents
Graphic Organizer: Competing Theories
Behaviorism
• Skinner
Reaction to Rewards
•
•
•
•
Lepper
Deci and Ryan
Cameron and Pierce
Alfie Kohn
Glossary
References
How much do you know about use of
rewards in schools?
True or False:
1. General praise is the best way to increase intrinsic
motivation.
True
False
2. Research has shown that elaborate rewards
motivates students the best. True
False
3. Rewards should be contingent upon achievement.
True
False
4. Intermittent reinforcement is not effective.
True
False
5. Teachers should not give rewards for something a
student already likes to do.
True
False
If you answered all questions correctly, click here
If you missed a question, click here
The Rewards Controversy
Since the 1960s, motivating students through the use
of rewards has been standard practice. But cognitive
psychologists studying the interaction between rewards
and motivation see the use of rewards in education as
a more insidious practice. Despite 30 years of research
arguing for caution when using rewards to motivate
students, the educational system still subscribes to the
behaviorist model of positive reinforcement. Do you
think motivating students with rewards is a good thing?
View the rest of the slides and make up your own mind.
Competing Theories in Rewards
Research
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
Rewards have a negative impact
on learning
Behaviorism
Using Positive Reinforcement to
Shape Behavior
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
All types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Theory of Behaviorism and
Education
Behaviorism developed from research on
learning
Learners are subject to conditioning by their
environment (There are two types of conditioning.)
Early behaviorists were: Watson, Pavlov, and
Skinner
“ There is no place in the scientific analysis of behavior for a mind
or self.” (Skinner, 1990).
B.F. Skinner
Using rats and pigeons, Skinner experimented with
behavior reinforcements and coined the term operant
conditioning, shaping, and extinction.
Skinner’s Box
Click here:
Reward or not to reward? (according to Skinner…)
According to Skinner, all human behavior can be
explained by the principle of “reinforcement.”
Behaviors that are followed by rewards (that is,
reinforced) are likely to be repeated. (Robinson,
1998)
Skinner’s Box
Began as a maze for rodents to obtain food and the process of
waiting to observe behavior was tedious so…
Skinner built box with horizontal lever which rodent could press
to obtain food pellet. How rat obtains food it is not reinforced
again until the behavior is emitted.
This pattern occurs over and over again in small steps until the
rat does what Skinner wants him to do (shaping).
Extinction occurs when the learned response is eliminated.
Schedules of reinforcement plays an important role in the
manner in which behavior is reinforced.
Application to the classroom
More on Skinner: http://www.bfskinner.org/Home.html
Reward or not to Reward?
According to Skinner…
Believed that rewards cause behaviors
to be repeated. Students and Homework
Rewards (positive reinforcers) is more
effective in teaching new and better
behaviors. Students and Misbehaving
“The consequences of an act affect the probability of
it's occurring again.”
BF Skinner
Examples in Classrooms:
Jimmy refuses to do his homework. Ms.
Taylor is not sure what to do so she asks
Counselor Skinner for advice. He suggests
giving Jimmy a candy bar each time he
completes homework.
Suzy misbehaves everyday. Mr. Lodge is
frustrated and seeks advice from Principal
Skinner. Mr. Skinner says the best remedy is
to intermittently give Suzy extra recess time
for when she does behave.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Which type of reinforcement do you think is more effective? Why?
(Lefrancois,1983)
Types of Reinforcement
Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective.
Four types of reinforcement:
•
•
•
•
Tangible: a candy bar, stickers
Activity: more playtime
Graphic: Charting amount of desired behaviors
Social: Gestures and verbal expressions
• “The way positive reinforcement is carried out is more
important than the amount.”
BF Skinner
Reaction to the Behaviorists
Could Positive Reinforcement Via
Rewards Be Doing More Harm
Than Good?
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
All types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Studies of:
• Mark Lepper
• Edward Deci
• Mark Ryan
• Judy Cameron
• W. David Pierce
• Alfie Kohn
Mark Lepper’s Overjustification Hypothesis:
Sometimes Rewarding a Behavior Makes it
Less Likely to Happen
In a 1973 study, M.R. Lepper, D. Greene and R.E.
Nisbett discovered that preschoolers who already
enjoyed to draw would spend less time drawing and
would draw lower quality pictures when a reward for
drawing was offered to them.
Lepper (1981) called this overjustification. The
reward gave more than adequate justification for the
preschoolers participation. The student’s own
justification for drawing (because they like to draw)
was lost.
An old man was bothered by kids playing ball and yelling
every day in an empty lot next to his house. He knew he
couldn’t just chase them away. So,he offered each one of
them 25 cents to play and yell real loud. They always
played there anyway and the addition of money was great,
so they did. He did the same thing the next day and the
day after that, urging them to make a lot of noise. The kids
were delighted. On the fourth day, however, the old man
told them he was sorry but he could only pay them 15
cents. They grumbled but did it anyhow. The fifth day, he
told them he could only pay 5 cents. The kids left and
never came back!
http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4q.htm
Now do you see why the kids quit playing ball
when the old man began paying them?
The act of paying the kids overjustified the
reason they were playing ball in the empty lot
in the first place. The kids forgot that their
original justification was that they enjoyed
playing ball and making noise.
They began to think that they played ball and
made noise for the money, so when the
extrinsic reward (the money) got too small
they could not justify their play anymore.
Edward Deci and Mark Ryan’s Cognitive
Evaluation Theory:
All Rewards Have Two Potential Purposes
I. Potential to Inform
Can Increase Intrinsic Motivation
• Reward is given contingent upon quality of a student’s
work.
• Reward imbues student with a “feeling of competence”
that he/she was responsible for the quality of the work.
• “Feelings of competence” must be attributed to self.
• Intrinsic motivation will increase only in areas that already
hold “intrinsic interest” for the student!
Deci & Ryan, 1985
Edward Deci and Mark Ryan’s Cognitive
Evaluation Theory:
All Rewards Have Two Potential Purposes
II. Potential to Control
•
•
•
•
•
Can Decrease Intrinsic Motivation
A tangible reward is given for merely completing a task.
Student may believe the teacher is trying to control their
behavior with the reward.
Student may believe that their primary motivation for
doing the task is the reward.
When reward is removed, intrinsic motivation
diminishes, especially for tasks the student wasn’t
intrinsically motivated to do in the first place.
When autonomy is taken away, motivation decreases.
Deci & Ryan 2000
According to Cognitive Evaluation Theory what
is the purpose of the reward in this scenario?
Michael isn’t a great student but he does okay. One
wouldn’t describe him as outgoing, but he’s certainly not
shy. He’s not a star athlete either. Michael is the type of
student who often goes unnoticed by most teachers, but
not by Erin Green, his English teacher. Ms. Green saw
Michael stick up for a girl in his class who was being
teased by some of the more “popular” girls. That night,
Ms. Green called Michael’s parents to tell them how
proud she was of Michael’s actions at school that day.
This is not uncommon for Ms. Green. She makes a
point of calling parents at least three times per week to
tell them something positive about their child.
If you said “to inform” you are correct!
You get a
!
• Rewards that are contingent upon performance
convey information which can increase motivation.
• These rewards must give the student a feeling of
competence and the student must attribute the
success to himself/herself.
• Verbal praise, if it is specific, informative and
contingent upon performance can strengthen intrinsic
interest.
• Students already must have intrinsic interest in the
activity. (Michael was self-motivated to help the girl in
his class.)
Deci, Valelrand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991
Deci & Ryan, 1985
The Behaviorists Fight Back
• Judy Cameron and W. David Pierce (1994)
published a controversial meta-analysis.
• They reviewed 96 studies and determined
that “intrinsic motivation is not dampened by
rewards.”
• They said the only negative rewards were
those given to individuals “simply for doing a
task.”
(Cameron & Pierce, 1994)
All Rewards are Evil!!!
Alfie Kohn Fights Back!
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
All types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Alfie Kohn
Rewards Should Not Be Given
Pop behaviorism is dehumanizing and demeaning. Society
believes that it is right to reward people for what they do.
Rewarding children is like training a family pet.
Rewards are given in order to control. “They control through
seduction, rather than force. Rewards are typically used to
induce or pressure people to do things they would not freely do.”
(Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Alfie Kohn
Rewards Should Not Be Given
Rewards speak the wrong language. Rewards say, learning is
something done in order to receive a prize. Rewards don’t say,
learning is intrinsically valuable.
Rewards do not produce lasting change. The change does not
remain once the goodies are gone.
(Alan Kazdin’s token economy study, 1972)
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~jimbo/RIBARY_Folder/problems.htm
Alfie Kohn
Rewards Should Not Be Given
Giving praise does not improve student achievement,
behavior, or self-esteem.
• If students receive praise for easy tasks, they may
interpret it as meaning they are not smart.
• Praising students for their accomplishments may put
pressure on them to always perform well. This pressure
can cause students to become self-conscious and afraid
of failure.
• Students who become dependent on their teachers’
praise may avoid more difficult tasks, fearful that they will
not meet their teachers’ expectations.
Five Reasons Rewards Fail
1)
Rewards punish – If a student does not receive a reward
they were hoping to get, it is a form of punishment.
Threatening to withhold or withdraw a reward is identical to
threatening to use punishment.
Example:
Mr. Sphere tells his students that those who receive a 100%
on their spelling test tomorrow will get an additional 20
minutes of recess. That evening Johnny really studied his
words. His mom even gave him a practice test. The next day
Johnny took the test, but he misspelled one word. He had to
sit in the classroom while the others played outside. If you
were Johnny, how would you have felt?
Five Reasons Rewards Fail
2)
Rewards disrupt horizontal relationships and vertical
relationships - Rewards do not encourage students to work
together or to feel a sense of community in the classroom.
“Of all the ways by which people are led to seek rewards, I
believe the most destructive possible arrangement is to limit
the number that are available.” (Kohn, 1993)
Example:
Ms. Cube announces to the class that the student with the highest
math quiz scores during the second semester will receive a “big
block” Hershey’s milk chocolate candy bar.
If you were a student in Ms. Cube’s class, would you be willing to
help your classmates solve math problems? How would you feel
towards Ms. Cube, realizing that even if your quiz average is an A,
you still might not receive the reward?
Five Reasons Rewards Fail
3)
Rewards do not ask “why?” – Rewards do not get to the root of
why problems start in the first place. “Some people use rewards
because they are impatient for results, however fleeting or
superficial: their attention is focused on the bottom line and they
don’t particularly care about the ‘deeper issues’.” (Kohn, 1993)
Example:
Kim does not turn in her daily homework. Her teacher, Ms. Cylinder,
tells Kim that she will award her with a sticker every time she returns
her assignments. When Kim receives 15 stickers, she will receive a
special prize. Days pass and Kim still does not complete her work.
Ms. Cylinder gives up on the reward system. Unfortunately, the
teacher never asked Kim why completing homework was such a
struggle. If Ms. Cylinder had known that Kim had to spend her
evenings caring for her sick mother, she could have modified her
assignments. The unattained prize makes Kim feel like she is a
failure.
Five Reasons Rewards Fail
4)
Rewards do not promote risk-taking – “When we are
working for a reward, we do exactly what is necessary to get it
and no more. Risks are to be avoided whenever possible
because the objective is not to engage in open-ended
encounter with ideas; it is simply to get the goody.” (Kohn, 1993)
Example:
Amy’s school is having a reading contest. If all the students
read 2,000 books, the principal will reward them with a day of
food, games, and other activities on the soccer field. Amy
wants to read as many books as she can. Do you think Amy
will read easy reader books or long, challenging novels?
Five Reasons Rewards Fail
5)
Rewards decrease interest & intrinsic motivation – “Anything
presented as a prerequisite for something else – that is, as a means
toward some other end – comes to be seen as less desirable. The
recipient of the reward figures, ‘If they have to bribe me to do this, it
must be something I wouldn’t want to do’.” (Kohn, 1993)
http://amadeus.management.mcgill.ca/~mark.mortensen/orgweb/summaries/mse/conte
nt/Lepper+et_al.html
(Lepper, 1982)
Example:
Mr. Pyramid told his class that for every book report a student turned in,
they would receive a prize from his treasure chest. Kristin completed only
one book report. Why do you think she lost motivation?
Alfie’s Suggestions For Teachers
Who Feel They Must Reward
Offer fewer and smaller rewards. Give them out privately – don’t
make a fuss.
Give surprise rewards – don’t tell students in advance.
Rewards should not be turned into a contest.
Make rewards as similar as possible to the task, i.e., give a book as
a reward for reading a book
Include students in the decision-making process, i.e., type of
reward, criteria, etc.
Rewards should not be used as a way to motivate students.
Alfie’s Suggestions For Teachers
Who Feel They Must Reward
Instead of praising students, praise what students do.
Be specific with praise – focus on parts of the product, not the
product in general.
Praise genuinely – avoid using praise to manipulate or control.
Give praise privately – avoid setting up competition by
comparing one to another.
Let’s see what you know NOW!
1.
If a student stops doing his homework after the teacher
no longer gives candy bars for completion this behavior
is called conditioning.
True
False
2.
BF Skinner was against the use of any kind of reinforcer
or reward.
True
False
3.
BF Skinner and Alfie Kohn are on opposite sides of the
controversy of using rewards.
True
False
4.
Behaviorists believe that learners are subject to
conditioning by their environment. True
False
How ya doing?
5.
The theory of cognitive evaluation states that a reward
given for a task the student already enjoys
“overjustifies” the reasons for their participation. True
False
6.
According to Deci and Ryan, all rewards have two
components: potential to control and potential to inform.
True
False
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in a task for
its own sake with no recognizable reward.
True
False
Alfie Kohn feels rewards stifle intrinsic motivation.
True
False
7.
8.
You’re Almost Finished!
9)
According to Alfie Kohn, rewards help to understand the
reason behind the problem.
True
False
10. Kohn feels rewards encourage collaboration among
students.
True
False
11. Kohn states that teachers should not tell students about
rewards before they are given.
True
False
12) Studies have shown that rewards encourage students to
take chances and think creatively.
True
False
Teacher Tips
Rewards should never be given for mere participation in a
task.
Rewards should always be contingent upon achievement.
Praise should always be specific, informative and contingent
upon performance.
Rewards should be meaningful.
Rewards should not be presented on only one occasion
(when trying to shape behavior).
Use the smallest reward that will reinforce behavior.
Keep reward systems simple.
Forty Years of Rewards Research
Behaviorists: (B.F. Skinner)
Reinforcement
Behavior can be manipulated
by positive reinforcement (rewards)
Cognitive Psychologists
(M. Lepper, E.L.Deci, R.M.Ryan)
Most types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Behaviorists
(J. Cameron, W.D. Pierce)
Most types of rewards can increase
intrinsic motivation
Cognitive Psychologist
(A. Kohn)
All types of rewards damage
intrinsic motivation
Glossary
Behaviorism - observable aspects of behavior
Classical Conditioning - organisms have no control over a
situation
Cognitive Evaluation Theory - all rewards have the potential
to control and the potential to inform
Conditioning - association formed between a stimulus and
response
Extinction - the gradual disappearance of a learned response
with the reinforcer is removed.
Glossary
Extrinsic Motivation - an activity is done to obtain some external
reward
Horizontal Relationship – an association among peers
Intrinsic Motivation - doing an activity for the inherent satisfaction of
doing that activity, not because of an external reward that you will
receive for doing the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000)
Negative Reinforcement - removing a stimulus to increase a behavior
Operant Conditioning - organisms produce a consequence by
operating on its environment
Glossary
Overjustification Hypothesis - person loses personal motivation and
justification for doing a task because of an external factor that
gives more justification than necessary
Pop Behaviorism –popular form of behaviorism in which people are
rewarded for what they do. “Do this and you’ll get that.”
Reinforcement - the effect of a reinforcer; an increase in the
probability of a response reoccurring
Reward – a desired object or event made conditional on having
fulfilled some criterion: only if you do this will you get that.
Vertical Relationship – an association between teacher and student
References
Bruner, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., & Ronning, R. R. (2004).
Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward and intrinsic
motivation: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64(3),
363-423.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic rewards and
intrinsic motivation in education: reconsidered once again. Review of
Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Cognitive evaluation theory. Intrinsic
motivation and self-determination in human behavior. pp. 43-85). New
York: Plenum.
Killoran, I. (2003). Why is your homework not done? How theories of
development affect your approach in the classroom. Journal of
Instructional Psychology, 30 (4): 309-315.
References
Kohn, A. (1993). Punished By Rewards. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Lefrancois, (1983). Learning in Psychology (pp. 151-179). Wadsworth Publishing
Co.
Lepper, M. R. (1988). Motivational considerations in the study of instruction.
Cognition and instruction 5(4), 289-309.
Lieberman, D. (1993). Reinforcement in Learning. Belmont, CA : Wadsworth.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk D. H. (2001) Motivation in education: Theory, research and
applications (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Robinson, J. (1998). To Reward?...or Not to Reward? American Journal of Health
Promotion, 13(1), 1-3.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic
definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 5467.
Skinner, B.F. Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychology,
45:1209.
Quotes from: http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/b._f._skinner/
Do you think this is a
good example of verbal
praise?
(You’re a genius!)