Transcript COD(3ed) - Chapter 1

1. Computer Abstractions and
Technology
1. Computer Abstractions and Technology
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Below Your Program
1.3 Under the Covers
1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips
1.5 Fallacies and Pitfalls
1.6 Concluding Remarks
1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading
1.8 Exercises
Computer Architecture 1-1
1.1 Introduction
3 Classes of Computing Applications (1/2)
1. Desktop computers



Personal computers
Good performance to a single user at low cost
Third-party software, also called shrink-wrap software
2. Servers




Modern form of mainframes, mini- and supercomputers
Usually accessed via a network
Expandability and dependability
From low-end servers to supercomputers
Back to chapter overview
Computer Architecture 1-2
3 Classes of Computing Applications (2/2)
3. Embedded computers



A computer inside another device used for running one predetermined
application or collection of software
Minimum performance with stringent limitations on cost or power
Growth rate (Fig. 1.1)


Desktop and servers: 9%/year
Embedded computers: 40%/year
Elaboration: Processor cores
 31% of embedded processors (1998) to 56% (2002)
 With growth rate of 40% /year of embedded market, 63% growth
per year
Computer Architecture 1-3
Number of Processors Sold
1200
1000
800
Embedded
Deskt ops
Ser ver s
600
400
200
0
Computer Architecture 1-4
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Figure 1.1
Sales of Microprocessors
1400
1300
Other
SPARC
1200
Hitachi SH
1100
PowerPC
1000
Motorola 68K
MIPS
900
IA-32
800
ARM
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1998
Computer Architecture 1-5
1999
2000
2001
2002
Figure 1.2
1.2 Below Your Program
 C, Assembly, Binary
Figure 1.4
Back to chapter overview
Computer Architecture 1-6
1.3 Under the Covers
 Five Classic Components
Figure 1.5
Back to chapter overview
Computer Architecture 1-7
Anatomy of a Mouse
 Brief history of pointing devices



1967, research prototype by Engelbart
1973, Alto with a mouse
By the 1990s, mouse in every desktop computer
 Electromechanical mouse

A ball increase x and y counters.
 Optical mouse



LED ∙∙∙ illuminating the surface
Black-and-white camera ∙∙∙ taking 1500 sample pictures/sec
Simple optical processor ∙∙∙ comparing the images to determine the
movement of the mouse
Computer Architecture 1-8
Through the Looking Glass
 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display

Refresh rate ∙∙∙ 30 to 75 times per second
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)



LCD pixel is not the source of light.
Rod-shaped molecules
Active matrix LCD
 Raster refresh buffer or frame buffer
Computer Architecture 1-9
Opening the Box
 Inside the personal computer
Figure 1.8
Computer Architecture 1-10
Pentium Processor
Figure 1.9 in 2ed
Computer Architecture 1-11
Pentium 4 Processor
Figure 1.9
Computer Architecture 1-12
Main Board with Pentium Pro
Computer Architecture 1-13
Close-up of PC Motherboard
Figure 1.10
Computer Architecture 1-14
Abstractions
 A model that renders lower-level details of computer systems
temporarily invisible in order to facilitate design of sophisticated
systems.
 Instruction set architecture (=Architecture)

Interface between hardware and lower-level software

... the attributes of a [computing] system as seen by the programmer, i.e.
the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the
organization of the data flows and controls, the logic design, and the
physical implementation. (Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks with the IBM 360,
1964)
Computer Architecture 1-15
What is Computer Architecture?
 Concerned with only the highest level of the hierarchy
 Specification at the lowest level is incredibly complex
 Separate functionality from implementation
 Concept of computer family

1964, 6 models of IBM System/360

Machines sharing same architecture

But having different implementations

Software investment of the client is preserved as new models are
introduced
Computer Architecture 1-16
A Safe Place for Data
 Main memory (=primary memory)


Volatile
Mainly DRAMs since 1975
 Magnetic disk


Dominating secondary memory since 1965
Nonvolatile
 Removable storage technologies




Optical disks
Magnetic tape
FLASH-based memory cards
Floppy drives and Zip drives
Computer Architecture 1-17
Optical Disks
 Compact disk (CD)


Spiral track
Pit ∙∙∙ about 10-6 m of diameter
 Digital video disk (DVD)


Multiple layers
Much smaller pits
 Rewritable CD/DVD



Recording surface of crystalline, reflective material
Recording ∙∙∙ similar to that for a write-once CD/DVD
Erasure ∙∙∙ annealing process
Computer Architecture 1-18
Semiconductor Technologies
Year
Technology
Relative performance/unit cost
1951
Vacuum tube
1
1965
Transistor
35
1975
IC
900
1995
VLSI
2,400,000
2005
ULSI
6,200,000,000
Figure 1.12
Computer Architecture 1-19
Moore’s Law on DRAM Capacity
 Gordon Moore of Intel



2X every 18~24 months
4X every 3 years
X16,000 for 20 years since 1977
Figure 1.13
Computer Architecture 1-20
Performance Increase of a Workstation
Figure 1.17
Computer Architecture 1-21
1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips
Figure 1.14
Back to chapter overview
Computer Architecture 1-22
Issues in Manufacturing ICs
 Performance: Major objective
 Testability: More than half of total cost
 Area: Directly related to the money
 Power
 Packaging: Wire-bonding, Molding

Surface mount technology

Through hole package
Computer Architecture 1-23
Intel Pentium 4 Processors
Figure 1.15
8-inch wafer for Pentium 4
Computer Architecture 1-24
Figure 1.16
Pentium 4
1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading
The First Electronic Computers
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)

The first operational electronic general-purpose computer

18,800 vacuum tubes, 1,900 additions per second


By J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, Moore School of Electrical
Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania
Funded by US Army
 Differences from the earlier calculators

Conditional jumps

Programmable
Back to chapter overview
Computer Architecture 1-25
Weaknesses of ENIAC
1. Small amount of storage - twenty 10-digit registers
2. Tedious programming - manual cable plugging and switch
setting
Figure 1.7.1
Computer Architecture 1-26
Other First Generation Computers (1/3)
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

A stored-program concept
(cf) von Neumann computer

Eckert, Mauchly, Goldstine, and von Neumann
 EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)

1946, Maurice Wilkes of Cambridge University

The world's first full-scale, operational, stored-program computer
(cf) The world's first operational, stored-program computer
Mark I, University of Manchester
Computer Architecture 1-27
Other First Generation Computers (2/3)
 IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) machine

At Princeton University

By von Neumann + Goldstine + Arthur Burks + Julian Bigelow

1024 40-bit words and 10 times faster than ENIAC
 Atanasoff-Berry's machine

Iowa State University, early 1940s

Special-purpose computer

Never completely operational
Computer Architecture 1-28
Other First Generation Computers (3/3)
 Konrad Zuse's special-purpose machine

Germany, late 1930s to early 1940s
 Harvard Mark-I



Electromechanical computer built by Howard Aiken
Mark-II, Mark-III and Mark-IV
Harvard architecture
separate memories for instructions and data
 Whirlwind project




MIT, 1947
For the applications in real-time radar signal processing
Magnetic core memory
2048 16-bit words memory
Computer Architecture 1-29
Commercial Developments
 Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation


Formed in December 1947
BINAC



The first machine built for Northrop, August 1949
Acquired by Remington-Rand
UNIVAC I

June 1951, the first successful commercial computer
 IBM




Punched card and office automation business
In 1950, starts building computers
IBM 701: the first IBM computer, shipped in 1952
IBM System/360

1964, investing $5 billion, computer family of 6 models
Computer Architecture 1-30
PDP-8
 The first minicomputer
 1965, DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation)
 under $20,000
Computer Architecture 1-31
Intel 4004
 The first microprocessor
 1971, Intel
 23,000 transistors
Computer Architecture 1-32
Supercomputers
 Control Data Corporation

1963, CDC 6600

The first supercomputer

Designed by Seymour Cray
 Cray Research, Inc.

1976, Cray-1

1996, Silicon Graphics
Computer Architecture 1-33
Personal Computers
 Apple II

1977, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
 IBM PC

1981, Intel 80x86 and MS-DOS
 MS-DOS

Sold 12 million copies in 1990
 Embedded computers


Increasingly popular
Example: MIPS chips
5,200,000 out of 5,500,000
Computer Architecture 1-34
Key Commercial Computers since 1950
Computer Architecture 1-35