Transcript EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers

Information
Processing
Module 21
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QR code for 21 22 SG
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Memory Overview
Encoding: Getting Information In
 How We Encode
 What We Encode
Storage: Retaining Information
 Sensory Memory
 Working/Short-Term Memory
 Long-Term Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
 Retrieval Cues
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Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to store
and retrieve information.
Memory is the basis for knowing your
friends, your neighbors, the English
language, the national anthem, and yourself.
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Basic Memory Processes
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Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
How Memory 6
Works Nova
Information
Processing Model
Three Stages of
Memory
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Modifications to the Three-Stage
Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory
information received, we select information
that is important to us and actively process it
into our working memory.
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Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory
that involves conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from
long-term memory
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Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your
school) is automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number)
requires attention and effort.
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Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
how many times things happen to you.
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Effortful Processing
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook.
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Such processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
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Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or
conscious repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
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Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were
required to remember
them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects
1. Spacing Effect: We retain information
better when we rehearse over time.
2. Serial Position Effect: When your
recall is better for first and last items
on a list, but poor for middle items.
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
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What We Encode Overview
1. Encoding by meaning
2. Encoding by images
3. Encoding by organization
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Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal
information by associating it with
what we already know or imagine.
Encoding meaning (semantic
encoding) results in better
recognition later than visual or
acoustic encoding.
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Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful
aid to effortful processing, especially
when combined with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
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Effectiveness of encoding
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Mnemonics
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
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Organizing Information for
Encoding
We break down complex information into
broad concepts and further subdivide
them into categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchies
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
units.
Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
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Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide,
Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo, Violet
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Encoding: Chunking
 Organized information is more easily recalled
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into
broad concepts and further subdivided
into categories and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
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Storage: Retaining Information
Overview
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Whole Report
Sperling (1960)
R G T
F M Q
L Z S
“Recall”
RTMZ
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
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Partial Report
S X T
J R S
P K Y
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
JRS
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity
was larger than what was originally thought.
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Time Delay
A D I
N L V
O G H
Low Tone
Time
Delay
“Recall”
Medium Tone
N__
(33% recall)
High Tone
50 ms (1/20 second)
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Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
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Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory
varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
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Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Working Memory Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two(1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
Working memory, the new
name for short-term
memory, has a limited
capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
George Miller
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Chunking
You already know the capacity of the working
memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
But you didn’t know that
you can handle 4
chunks
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Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the
duration of working memory by manipulating
rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about
20 sec.
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Working Memory Duration
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Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
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Long-Term Memory
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
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Memory Feats
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Memory Stores Quick Look
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years 46
Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous
research data showing, through brain
stimulation, that memories were etched into
the brain and found that only a handful of
brain stimulated patients reported
flashbacks.
2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that
even after removing parts of the brain, the
animals retain partial memory of the maze.
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Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed
that serotonin release from neurons increased
after conditioning.
Photo: Scientific American
Link to Aplysia at nova
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Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the
receiving neuron
indicates strengthening
of synapses.
Link to Memory in action at
Nova 3:07
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Stress Hormones & Memory
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of
emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
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Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences
that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit memory involves learning an action
while the individual does not know or declare
what she knows.
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Changing lanes…
• Activity
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
Clive
Wearing at
AM
Clive on YT
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Fig. 7-23, p. 286
Amnesias
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but could not make new memories. We
call this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
Retrograde
amnesia
No old memories
How memory works at
Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
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Memory Formation in
Anterograde Amnesia:
HM got better and
better at the mirror
tracing task, but he
didn’t remember doing
it.
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Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
Towers
of Hanoi
Link 62
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
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Recognition
In recognition, the person must
identify an item amongst other
choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
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Recall
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.)
1. The capital of Louisiana is ______.
New Orleans….
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Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
hose
truck
red
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Semantic Networks
Information is retrieved from memory
through spreading activation
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Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the
web of associations, you must first
activate one of the strands that leads to it.
This process is called priming.
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Memory Test #1
• Memorize the following words (List 1)
• read, pages, letters, school, study,
reading, stories, sheets, cover, pen,
pencil, magazine, paper, words
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Memory Test #1
• Now…write down any words from the
following list which were on the List 1:
• house, pencil, apple, shoe, book,
flag, rock, train, ocean, hill, music,
water, glass, school
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Memory Test #1
• Did you say that "book" was on list 1? Only
pencil and school were on list 1.
• Why do so many people think “book” was on
List 1?
• In a study conducted at Washington University,
82 percent of the time students remembered
seeing words that shared a theme say, insects but
were not on the original lists.
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Memory Test #2
• Memorize the following words (List 1)
• sheets, pillow, mattress, blanket,
comfortable, room, dream, lay, chair,
rest, tired, night, dark, time
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Memory Test #2
• Now…write down any words from the
following list which were on the List 1:
• door, tree, eye, song, pillow, juice,
orange, radio, rain, car, sleep, cat,
dream, eat
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Memory Test #2
• Did you say that "sleep" was on list 1? Only
pillow and dream were on List 1
• Why do so many people think “sleep” was on
List 1?
• Constructive Memory
• This is an example of a false memory. Using
semantic encoding is good, but it can lead to
semantic errors. Many people get a “false
positive” error when a word shows up in List 2
that is semantically similar to many words in
List 1.
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• …That huge percentage of error (82%) is
especially remarkable when compared to the
75 percent correct memory for words that were
actually on the list! In other words, mindbugs
can be powerful enough to produce greater
recollection of things that didn't
occur than of things that did
occur.
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Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater
if they learned the list underwater, while
they recall more words on land if they
learned that list on land (Godden &
Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
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Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by
kicking, infants most strongly respond
when retested in the same context rather
than in a different context (Rovee-Collier,
1993).
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier,
Rutgers University
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Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this
before.” Cues from the current situation
may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an
earlier similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
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Retrieving Incomplete
Knowledge
• Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
– “The answer is on the tip-of-my-tongue… It
starts with Q….”
• Feeling-of-knowing Experience – If you
don’t know the answer, how likely is it that
you could recognize the answer? People
are good at this. They “know it” but can’t
retrieve it.
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Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent
with our current mood (state-dependent
memory).
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
Our memories are mood-congruent.
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
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EXPLORING
PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Edition in Modules)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad, Garber edits
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2008
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