Transcript VIII. MEMORY - Furman University

X. MEMORY
A. Memory as an information
processing system.
1. Computer metaphor...
 2. 4 steps or components.
 a. Attention: (info is remembered only if it is noticed.)

b. Encoding: getting info into memory.
c. Storage: keeping encoded info in memory.
d. Retrieval: getting info out of memory.
B. Overall process.
C. Sensory Memory
Where we initially record sensory input or
stimuli into memory.
 Stores ALL stimuli that senses register
 Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli but
for fraction of second to 3 seconds

K
Q
S
Z
B
G
R
T
N
How many letters can you recall?
 Did information NEVER register?

– (We can only register so much info. at once).

Or – did the image fade before you had to
report letters?
M
C
Q
X
W
P
O
U
S
R
D
Z
Y
H
E
I
P
B
C. Sensory Memory

1. Iconic Memory:
Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli).

2. Echoic Memory:
Fleeting auditory memory (sound).
– Why do we need sensory memory?
D. Short Term Memory
1. Description:
 Stores info from sensory memory before it’s
forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory.
 To get info from sensory memory to short term
memory:

– Only info that we pay attention to

But – we have limited attentional resources – so
short term memory is limited.
D. Short Term Memory

2. Has limited capacity. (7 +- 2)
– only small amount of info from sensory memory is
transferred to short term memory

2. Has limited duration.
– 10-15 seconds

To get info from sensory to short term – so that it
can be put into long term memory:
– Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli.
(say numbers over and over again or visualize them)
– Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.
1
3
8
6
2
5

8
0
3
8
9
3
9
1
0
2
1
7
2
9
1
4
0
9
4
1 2
0 1 2
7 6 3 8
0 1 2 4 6
B. Overall process.
D. Short Term Memory

3. Comparison to working memory.
– More “active” version of short term memory.
– Focus on attention part.
– Two major systems: verbal sounds,
visual/spatial
– Filter out unimportant info, focus on important
info.
E. Long Term Memory
1. Description:
- The stored representation of all that a
person knows.
- Has unlimited capacity.
- Is long-lasting.
 2. Encoding: how we get info from ST to
LT memory.

E. Long Term Memory
2. Encoding

a. Rehearsal: conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus’ research
- rehearsed nonsense syllables .
(BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM)
- more rehearsed – more remembered.
- is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory?
- Spacing rehearsal over time
E. Long Term Memory
2. Encoding

b. Elaboration: Rehearse/understand info at deeper
level. How?
i. Differences in how info is encoded.
– Craik & Tulving (1975)
» visual
» acoustic
» semantic (meaning)
Use images/stories
E. Long Term Memory
2. Encoding
i. Differences in what/how info is encoded.
– Self-Reference Effect:
Tend to remember things that are related to
ourselves better.
E. Long Term Memory
2. Encoding

ii. Using organization to better encoding.
– Chunking: put information into meaningful
units or chunks.
– Hierarchies: Chunk information into broad
categories that are divided into narrower
categories.
» Your class outlines
Nervous System
Nervous
system
Central
(brain and
spinal cord)
Peripheral
Autonomic (controls
self-regulated action of
internal organs and glands)
Skeletal (controls
voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles)
Sympathetic
(arousing)
Parasympathetic
(calming)
E. Long Term Memory

c. Forgetting in the encoding stage.
– Draw a penny…
– Encoding failure.

If encoding is successful, and information
goes from ST to LT memory…
– Goes to “storage” phase.
B. Overall process.
E. Long Term Memory
3. Storage

a. Two types of memories:
Implicit or procedural: memories that allow for learning.
i.
–
–
Motor and cognitive skills
Skills do not require conscious recall
Explicit or declarative: memories that let us know info and
state that we know info.
ii.
–
–
Facts/general knowledge
Personally experienced events.
E. Long Term Memory
3. Storage
 b. Forgetting in the storage stage

– Decay Theory: If never use or work on info
stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.
E. Long-Term Memory
3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain?)
c. Neurobiology in memory.
i. Brain structure:

– Hippocampus
» is essential for encoding newly acquired information (explicit).
» H.M.: anterograde (can’t form new LT memories)
(has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory)
vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories)
» NOT only structure involved in memory.
ii. Neurons
– ACH (Alzheimer’s)
E. Long Term Memory

4. Retrieval:
To actually remember info and use it, need to
retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or
working memory).
a.
LT memory has “web-like” structure
importance of cues
priming: the activation of particular
associations in memory.
E. Long Term Memory

4. Retrieval
b. Influences on retrieval.
Encoding Specificity: Cues that are
prominent in person’s mind during original
encoding into LT memory are the most
effective cues at retrieval.
E. Long Term Memory
Examples of Encoding Specificity:
i. Context Effects: Being in context similar to

encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate
remembering (e.g. smells)
ii. State-Dependent Memory: Have better
recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we
were in encoding.
iii. Mood Congruent Memory: Mood also
serves as a retrieval cue.
E. Long Term Memory
c. Forgetting in the retrieval stage.
 i. Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Retrieve
parts of memory that must be put into a whole.
 ii. Interference: Learning new info can
interfere with retrieving old info.
- Proactive Interference: something learned
earlier disrupts recall of info learned later.
- Retroactive Interference: new info makes it
harder to recall something learned earlier.

F. Are memories carbon copies
of our experiences?
Discussed reason why we “forget”
information.
 But, when we do recall information, is it
always correct?
 Retrieving memories involves
RECONSTRUCTION.

F. Are memories carbon copies
of our experiences?
1. Motivated “Forgetting”:
 What we do & do not remember is biased
by what we want & expect to see.

– Consistency
– Improvement
F. Are memories carbon copies
of our experiences?

2. Memory Reconstruction.
– Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of
memory.

What happens if “fill in gaps” with incorrect
information?
– Loftus & Palmer (1974)
F. Are memories carbon copies
of our experiences?
Misinformation Effect:
Incorporating incorrect information into our
memory of an event.
 Are these people lying?

F. Are memories carbon copies
of our experiences?
B. Applications
 Eyewitness Testimony
 Repressed Memories Debate
 How can we tell true from false memories?

3 key parts
 4 key processes
 How to better remember info:

– rehearse rehearse rehearse (space rehearsal)
– encoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode info
» use meaning, self as cue, images, etc.
» use chunks, hierarchies
» test to see you encoded info at all
– retrieval stage
» avoid interference
» reinstate the context (state, mood, etc.)