Transcript BASIC CHEMISTRY - Archbishop Ryan High School

BASIC CHEMISTRY
Definition of Concepts
Matter and Energy
Matter
• Is anything that occupies space and has
mass
• The mass of an object, which is equal
to the actual amount of matter in the
object, remains constant wherever the
object is
– In contrast, weight varies with gravity
• Remains constant regardless of gravity
– Weight does not
States of Matter
• Matter exists in one of three states:
– Solid
– Liquid
– gas
ENERGY
• Has no mass and does not take up space
– Compared with matter, energy is less
tangible
– Measured by only its effect on matter
• Is the capacity to do work, or to put
matter into motion
ENERGY
• Exists in two forms, or work capacities,
each transformable to the other:
– Kinetic energy: energy of motion
• Energy in action
– Potential energy: stored energy
• Inactive energy that has the potential, or capability,
to do work but is not presently doing so
• Matter is the substance, and energy is the
mover of the substance
ENERGY
•
Forms of energy:
– Chemical: energy stored in chemical bonds
• Potential energy in the foods you eat is eventually converted into the kinetic energy of
movement
• Food fuels cannot be used to energize body activities directly
• Some of the food energy is captured temporarily in the bonds of a chemical called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
– Electrical: results from the movement of charged particles
• Electrical currents are generated when charged particles called ions move along or
across cell membranes
• Nervous system uses electrical currents, called nerve impulses, to transmit messages
from one part of the body to another
– Mechanical: energy directly involved with moving matter
• Walking, running, movement of arms, etc.
– Radiant (electromagnetic): energy that travels in waves
• Light energy stimulates the retina of the eye
• Ultraviolet waves cause sunburn, but they also stimulate our body to make vitamin D
•
Easily converted from one form to another
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
BASIC TERMS
• Elements are unique substances that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical
means
• Four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
make up roughly 96% of body weight
• Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that
retain the characteristics of that element
– Every element’s atoms differ from those of all other elements
and give the element its unique physical (color, texture, boiling
point, freezing point) and chemical properties (the way atoms
interact with other atoms: bonding behavior)
• Elements are designated by a one- or two- letter
abbreviation called the atomic symbol
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
•
•
Atom: Greek for indivisible
Each atom has a central nucleus
with tightly packed protons and
neutrons
• Protons (p+) have a positive
charge and a mass of 1 atomic
mass unit (amu)
• Neutrons (n0) do not have a
charge but have a mass of 1
atomic mass unit (amu)
– Thus, the nucleus is positively
charged overall
– Accounts for nearly the entire
mass (99.9%) of the atom
•
Electrons (e-) are found moving
around the nucleus, have a
negative charge, and are
considered massless (0
amu)?????
– 1/2000 the mass of a proton
ATOM STRUCTURE
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• All atoms are electrically neutral
because the number of electrons in
an atom is equal to the number of
protons (the + and – charges cancel
the effect of each other)
–For any atom the number of
protons and electrons is always
equal
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Planetary model (a): is a
simplified (outdated), twodimensional model of
atomic structure
– It depicts electrons moving
around the nucleus in fixed,
generally circular orbits
• BUT, we can never
determine the exact
location of electrons at a
particular time because
they jump around
following unknown
trajectories
ATOM STRUCTURE
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Orbital model (b): is a more
accurate three dimensional
model talking about orbital
regions instead of set orbital
patterns
– Instead of speaking of specific
orbits, chemists talk about
orbitals—regions around the
nucleus in which a given
electron pair is likely to be
found most of the time
– More useful for predicting the
chemical behavior of atoms
– Depicts probable regions of
greatest density by denser
shading (this haze is called
the electron cloud)
ATOM STRUCTURE
IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS
• Elements are identified based on their
number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
• All we really need to know to identify a
particular element are its atomic
number, mass number, and atomic
weight
THREE SMALL ATOMS
ATOMIC NUMBER
• Is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus of any atom
– Written as a subscript to the left of its atomic symbol
– Examples:
• Hydrogen with one proton, has an atomic number of 1 (1H)
• Helium with two protons, has an atomic number of 2 (2He)
• Since the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons, the atomic number
indirectly tells us the number of electrons
– This is important information, because electrons
determine the chemical activity of atoms
Mass Number and Isotopes
• Mass number of an element is equal to the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons
• The electron is considered massless and is ignored in calculating
the mass number
– Examples:
• Hydrogen has only one proton in its nucleus, so its atomic and mass
numbers are the same: 1
• Helium, with two protons and two neutrons, has a mass number of 4
• Mass number is usually indicated by a superscript to
the left of the atomic symbol
– Thus, helium is: 42He
– This simple notation allows us to deduce the total number and
kinds of subatomic particles in any atom because it indicates the
number of protons (the atomic number), the number of electrons
(equal to the atomic number), and the number of neutrons (mass
number minus atomic number)
Mass Number and Isotopes
• Nearly all known elements
have two or more structural
variations called isotopes
– They have the same number
of protons and electrons of all
other atoms of the element
but differ in the number of
neutrons in the atom
– Examples:
• Hydrogen has a mass
number of 1: 1H
• Some hydrogen atoms have a
mass of 2 or 3 amu, which
means that they have one
proton and, respectively, one
or two neutrons: 2H or 3H
HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
Isotopes
• Carbon has several isotopic forms:
– The most abundant of these are: 12C, 13C, and
14C
– Each of the carbon isotopes has six protons
(otherwise it would not be carbon), but 12C
has six neutrons, 13C has seven neutrons,
and 14C has eight neutrons
• Isotopes are also written with the mass number
following the symbol: C-14
ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Also referred to as ATOMIC MASS
• Is an average of the relative masses of
all isotopes of an element, taking into
account their relative abundance
(proportions) in nature
– Example:
• Atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008
– Reveals that its lightest isotope (1H) is present in
much greater amounts in our world than its 2H or 3H
forms
RADIOISOTOPES
• The heavier isotopes of many elements are unstable and
spontaneously decompose into more stable forms
– The process of atomic decay is called radioactivity, and isotopes that
exhibit this behavior are called radioisotopes
• The disintegration of a radioactive nucleus may be compared to a tiny
explosion
• It occurs when subatomic alpha (packets of 2p + 2n) particles, beta
(electronlike negative particles) particles, or gamma (electromagnetic
energy) rays are ejected from the atomic nucleus
– Why this happens is complex, and you only need to know that the
dense nuclear particles are compressed of even smaller particles called
quarks that associate in one way to form protons and in another way to
form neutrons
• Apparently, the “glue” that holds these nuclear particles together is
weaker in the heavier isotopes
• When disintegration occurs, the element may transform to a different
element
RADIOISOTOPES
• Radioisotopes gradually lose their
radioactive
– Time required for a radioactive isotope to lose
one-half of its radioactivity is called the halflife (varies from hours to thousands of years)
HOW MATTER IS
COMBINED:
MOLECULES AND MIXTURES
MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS
• A combination of two or more atoms is called a
molecule
– If two or more atoms of the same element combine it is called a
molecule of that element
• H2,, O2 , S8
– If two or more atoms of different elements combine it is called a
molecule of a compound
• H2O, CH4
• Just as an atom is the smallest particle of an element
that still exhibits the properties of the element, a
molecule is the smallest particle of a compound that still
displays the specific characteristics of the compound
– Important concept:
• Because the properties of compounds are usually very different
from those of the atoms they contain
MIXTURES
• Substances made of two or more
components mixed physically
• Although most matter in nature exists
in the form of mixtures, there are only
three basic types:
– Solutions
– Colloids
– suspensions
Solutions
•
•
Homogeneous mixtures of compounds that may be gases, liquids, or solids
• Examples:
– Air: mixture of gases
– Seawater: mixture of salts, which are solid, and water
– The substance present in the greatest amounts is called the solvent (does the
dissolving)
• Usually liquids
• Water is the universal solvent
– Substances present in smaller amounts are called solutes (is dissolved)
Most solutions in the body are true solutions containing gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in
water
– True solutions are usually transparent
• Examples:
– Saline solution: NaCl and water
– Glucose and water
– Solutes of a true solution are minute, usually in the form of individual atoms and
molecules
• Consequently, they are not visible to the naked eye, do not settle out, and do not scatter
light
– If a beam of light is passed through a true solution, you will not see the path of
light
Concentration of Solutions
• Solutions may be described by their
concentrations, which may be indicated in
various ways:
– Percent (parts per 100 parts) of the solute in the
solution
• Always refers to the solute percentage, and unless otherwise
noted, water is assumed to be the solvent
– Molarity (moles per liter):
• Indicated by M
• Mole of any element or compound is equal to its atomic
weight or molecular weight (sum of the atomic weights)
weighed out in grams
Concentration of Solutions
Molarity
• Glucose is C6H12O6, which indicates that it
has 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and
6 oxygen atoms
– The molecular weight of glucose using the
periodic table (chart) is calculated as follows:
•
•
•
Atom
Number
of
Atoms
– C
– H
– O
–
6
12
6
Atomic
Weight
X
X
X
12.011 =
1.008 =
15.999 =
Total
Atomic
Weight
72.066
12.096
95.994
180.156
Concentration of Solutions
Molarity
• To make a one-molar solution of
glucose, you would weigh out 180.156
grams (g), called a gram molecular
weight, of glucose and add enough
water to make 1 liter (L) of solution
– Thus, a one-molar solution (1.0 M) of a
chemical substance is one gram molecular
weight of the substance (or one gram atomic
weight in the case of elemental substances) in
1 L (1000 ml) of solution
Concentration of Solutions
Molarity
• The beauty of using the mole as the basis
of preparing solutions is its precision:
– One mole of any substance contains
exactly the same number of solute
particles, that is, 6.02 X 1023 (Avogadro’s
number)
– So whether you weigh out 1 mole of glucose
(180 g) or 1 mole of water (18 g) or 1 mole of
methane (16 g), in each case you will have
6.02 X 1023 molecules of that substance
Colloids
• Colloids (emulsions) are heterogeneous
mixtures that often appear translucent or
milky
– Although, the solute particles are larger
than those in true solutions, they still do
not settle
• However, they do scatter light, and so the path of a
light beam shining through a colloidal mixture is
visible
Colloids
• Have many unique properties, including the
ability of some to undergo sol-gel
transformation, that is, to change reversibly
from a fluid (sol) state to a more solid (gel)
state
– Jell-O, or any gelatin product, is a familiar example
of a nonliving colloid that changes from a sol to a
gel when refrigerated (and that will liquefy again if
placed in the sun)
– Cytosol, the semifluid material in living cells, is
also a colloid, and its sol-gel changes underlie many
important cell activities, such as cell division
Suspensions
• Suspensions are heterogeneous
mixtures with large, often visible
solutes that tend to settle out
– Examples:
• Mixture of sand and water
• Blood: living blood cells are suspended in the fluid
portion of blood (blood plasma)
DISTINGUISHING MIXTURES
AND COMPOUNDS
• 1.The main difference between mixtures and compounds is that
no chemical bonding occurs between molecules of a mixture
• Properties of atoms and molecules are not changed when they become part
of a mixture
– They are ONLY physically intermixed
• 2. Mixtures can be separated into their chemical components by
physical means (straining, filtering, evaporation, etc.); separation
of compounds is done by chemical means (breaking bonds)
• 3. Some mixtures are homogeneous, while others are
heterogeneous:
– Homogenous means that a sample taken from any part of the
substance has exactly the same composition (in terms of the atoms or
molecules it contains) as any other sample
• A bar of 100% pure (elemental) iron is homogeneous, as are all compounds
– Heterogeneous substances vary in their makeup from place to place
• Iron ore is a heterogeneous mixture that contains iron and many other
elements
CHEMICAL BONDS
• A chemical bond is an energy
relationship between the electrons of the
reacting atoms
– NOT a physical structure
Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding
• Electrons occupy regions of space called electron shells that
surround the nucleus in layers
– The atoms known so far can have electrons in seven shells (numbered
1 to 7 from the nucleus outward)
• But, the actual number of electron shells occupied in a given atom depends
on the number of electrons that atom has
• Each electron shell contains one or more orbitals
– Each electron shell represents a different energy level (think of
electrons as particles with a certain amount of potential energy)
• Electron shell and energy level are used interchangeable
• Each electron shell represents a different energy level
• Each electron shell holds a specific number of electrons, and shells
tend to fill consecutively from the closest to the nucleus to the
furthest away
• The octet rule, or rule of eights, states that except for the first
energy shell (stable with two electrons), atoms are stable with
eight electrons in their outermost (valence) shell
Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding
• The amount of potential energy an electron
has depends on the energy level it occupies,
because the attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged
electrons is greatest closest to the nucleus
and falls off with increasing distance
– This statement explains why electrons farthest
from the nucleus:
• 1. Have the greatest potential energy (it takes more energy
to overcome the nuclear attraction and reach the more
distant energy levels)
• 2. Are most likely to interact chemically with other atoms
(they are the least tightly held by their own atomic nucleus
and the most easily influenced by other atoms and molecules
Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding
• Each electron shell can hold a specific
number of electrons:
– Shell 1: shell immediately surrounding the nucleus
• Accommodates only 2 electrons
– Shell 2: holds a maximum of 8
– Shell 3: holds a maximum of 18
– Subsequent shells hold larger and larger numbers of
electrons
• Shells tend to be filled consecutively (from Shell 1 outward)
Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding
• When considering bonding
behavior, the only electrons
that are important are those
in the atom’s outermost
energy level
– Inner electrons usually do not
take part in bonding because
they are more tightly held by
the atomic nucleus
• Before an atom reacts it is
electrically stable (same
number of protons and
electrons) BUT it might not
be chemically stable
– Chemical stability depends
on the outer energy level
being filled
INERT ELEMENTS
UNSTABLE ELEMENTS
Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding
•
In atoms that have more than 20
electrons, the energy levels
beyond shell 2 can contain more
than eight electrons
– However, the number of
electrons that can participate in
bonding is still limited to a total
of eight
– The term valence shell is used
specially to indicate an atom’s
outermost energy level or that
portion of it containing the
electrons that are chemically
reactive
• Hence, the key to chemical
reactivity is the octet rule, or
rule of eights
– Except for Shell 1, which is full
when it has two electrons, atoms
tend to interact in such a way
that they have eight electrons in
their valence shell
INERT ELEMENTS
UNSTABLE ELEMENTS
Types of Chemical Bonding
• Three major types of chemical bonds:
– Ionic
– Covalent
– Hydrogen
Ionic Bonds
• Atoms are electrically neutral but might not be chemically
stable:
– Electrons can be transferred from one atom to another, and
when this happens, the precise balance of + and – charges is
lost and charged particles called ions are formed
• Ionic bonds are chemical bonds that form between two atoms that
transfer one or more electrons from one atom to the other
– Ions are charged particles
– An anion is an electron acceptor carrying a net negative
charge due to the extra electron (gains electrons)
– A cation is an electron donor carrying a net positive charge
due to the loss of an electron (it might help you to think of
the “t” in “cation” as a + sign)
– Because opposite charges attract, these ions tend to stay
close together, resulting in an ionic bond
Ionic Bonds
•
•
Crystals are large structures of cations and anions held together by ionic
bonds
Formation of NaCl
–
Sodium has an atomic number of 11
•
•
•
Only 1 valence electron
Losses this electron
Thus, Shell 2 becomes the valence shell (outermost energy level containing electrons) and is
full
–
–
Now, chemically stable BUT electrically unstable
Sodium becomes a cation (Na+)
IONIC BOND
Ionic Bonds
• Chlorine has an atomic number of 17
– 7 valence electrons
– Gains 1 electron
– Thus, Shell 3 becomes full
• Now, chemically stable BUT electrically unstable
• Chlorine becomes an anion (Cl-)
IONIC BOND
Ionic Bonds
• Sodium donates an electron to chlorine, and
the ions created in this exchange attract each
other, forming sodium chloride
• Ionic bonds are commonly formed between
atoms with one or two valence shell
electrons (the metallic elements, such as
sodium, calcium, and potassium) and atoms with
seven valence shell electrons (such as chlorine,
fluorine, and iodine)
Ionic Bonds
• Most ionic compounds
fall in the chemical
category called salts
– In the dry state, salts such
as sodium chloride do not
exist as individual
molecules
• Instead, they form
crystals, large array of
cations and anions held
together by ionic bonds
IONIC COMPOUND
Ionic Bonds
• Sodium chloride is an excellent
example of the difference in properties
between a compound and its
constituent atoms
– Sodium is a silvery white metal, and chlorine
in its molecular state is a poisonous green
gas used to make bleach
– However, sodium chloride is a white
crystalline solid that we sprinkle on our food
Covalent Bonds
• Electrons do not have to be completely
transferred for atoms to achieve
stability
– Instead, they may be shared so that each
atom is able to fill its outer electron shell at
least part of the time
– Electron sharing produces molecules in
which the shared electrons occupy a
single orbital common to both atoms and
constitute covalent bonds
Covalent Bonds
• Form when electrons are shared between
two atoms
– Examples:
• Hydrogen: with its single electron can fill its
only shell (shell 1) by sharing a pair of
electrons with another atom
– Sharing with another hydrogen atom results in the gas H2
» The shared electron pair orbits around the
molecule as a whole, satisfying the stability
needs of each atom
Covalent Bonds
• Hydrogen can also share an electron pair with different kinds of
atoms to form a compound
– Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell, but needs eight to
achieve stability, whereas hydrogen has one electron, but needs
two
• Carbon shares four pairs of electrons with four hydrogen atoms (one
pair with each hydrogen)
• The shared electrons orbit and belong to the whole molecule, ensuring
the stability of each atom
COVALENT BOND
Covalent Bonds
• When two atoms share one pair of electrons, a single
covalent bond is formed (indicated by a single line
connecting the atoms, such as H-H
• Some atoms are capable of sharing two or three
electrons between them, resulting in double covalent
or triple covalent bonds
COVALENT BOND
COVALENT BOND
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Nonpolar molecules: share their
electrons evenly between two atoms
COVALENT BOND
• Sharing is not always equal in the covalent
bonds resulting in slight electrical charges in the
atoms of the compound
– Sometimes even though there is equal sharing, the
resulting molecule always has a specific threedimensional shape, with the bonds formed at
definite angles
– A molecule’s shape helps determine what other
molecules or atoms it can interact with
• It may also result in unequal electron pair sharing and
polarity
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Polar molecules: electrons spend more
time around one atom thus providing that
atom with a partial negative charge, while
the other atom takes on a partial positive
charge
– Often referred to as a dipole due to the two
poles of charges contained in the molecule
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Carbon dioxide and water illustrate how
molecular shape and the relative electronattracting abilities determine whether a
covalently bonded molecule is
nonpolar or polar
Carbon Dioxide
•
•
Carbon shares four electron pairs with
two oxygen atoms (two pairs are
shared with each oxygen)
Oxygen is very electronegative and so
attracts the shared electrons much
more strongly than does carbon
– However, because the carbon
dioxide molecule is linear and
symmetrical, the electronpulling ability of one oxygen
atom is offset by that of the
other, like a standoff between
equally strong teams in a game
of tug-of-war
– As a result, the shared
electrons orbit the entire
molecule and carbon dioxide is
a nonpolar compound
COVALENT BONDS
Water
•
•
Is V-shaped
Two hydrogen atoms are
located at the same end of the
molecule, and oxygen is at the
opposite end
– This arrangement allows
oxygen to pull the shared
electrons toward itself and
away from the two hydrogen
atoms
• The electron pairs are NOT
shared equally, but spend more
time in the vicinity of oxygen
• Because electrons are negatively
charged, the oxygen end of the
molecule is slightly more
negative and the hydrogen end
slightly more positive
– Because water has two poles of
charge, it is a polar molecule, or
dipole
COVALENT BONDS
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Polar molecules orient themselves toward
other dipoles or toward charged particles
(such as ions and some proteins), and
they play essential roles in chemical
reactions in body cells
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• Different molecules exhibit different
degrees of polarity, and we can see a
gradual change from ionic to nonpolar
covalent bonding
– Extremes:
• Ionic bonds: complete electron transfer
• Nonpolar covalent bonds: equal electron sharing
– There are various degrees of unequal
sharing in between
IONIC/POLAR/NONPOLAR
Hydrogen Bonds
•
•
•
Weak attractions that form
between partially charged
atoms found in polar molecules
Hydrogen bonds form when a
hydrogen atom, already covalently
linked to one electronegative atom
(usually nitrogen or oxygen), is
attracted by another electronhungry atom, and forms a bridge
between them
Common between dipoles such
as water molecules, because
the slightly negative oxygen
atoms of one molecule attract
the slightly positive hydrogens
of the other molecules
HYDROGEN BOND
Hydrogen Bonds
• Surface tension is due to hydrogen bonds
between water molecules
• Although hydrogen bonds are too weak to bind
atoms together to form molecules, they are
important as Intramolecular bonds, which
bind different parts of a single large molecule
together into a specific three-dimensional
shape
– Some large biological molecules, such as
proteins and DNA, have numerous hydrogen bonds
that help maintain and stabilize their structures
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• All particles of matter are in constant motion
because of their kinetic energy
• Movement of atoms or molecules in a solid is
usually limited to vibration because the
particles are united by fairly rigid bonds
– But in liquids or gases, particles dart about
randomly, sometimes colliding with one another
and interacting to undergo chemical reactions
– A chemical reaction occurs whenever chemical
bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken
Chemical Equations
• Describes what happens in a reaction
• Denotes:
– The kinds and number of reacting
substances, called reactants
– The chemical composition of the products
– The relative proportion of each reactant and
product, if balanced
Chemical Equations
•
•
Can be written in symbolic form as chemical equations
Examples:
– Joining two hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen gas is indicated as:
• H + H →
• Reactants
H2 (hydrogen gas)
Product
– Combining four hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom to form methane is
written:
• 4H
•
+
H
→
CH4 (methane)
Notice that a number written as a subscript indicates that the atoms are
joined by chemical bonds
– But a number written as a prefix denotes the number of unjoined atoms or
molecules
– Hence, CH4 reveals that four hydrogen atoms are bonded together with carbon
to form the methane molecule, but 4H signifies four unjoined hydrogen atoms
– The equation for the formation of methane may be read as either “four
hydrogen atoms plus one carbon atom yield one molecule of methane” OR
“ four moles of hydrogen atoms plus one mole of carbon yield one mole of
methane”
Patterns of Chemical Reactions
• Most chemical reactions exhibit one of
three recognizable patterns:
– Synthesis
– Decomposition
– Exchange reactions
– Oxidation-reduction reactions
Synthesis Reactions
• In a synthesis (combination)
reaction, larger molecules are
formed from smaller
molecules
• A synthesis reaction always
involves bond formation:
– A
+
B
→
AB
• Basis of constructive, or
anabolic activities in body
cells, such as joining small
molecules called amino
acids into large protein
molecules (a)
• Conspicuous in rapidly
growing tissues
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Decomposition Reactions
• In a decomposition reaction
a molecule is broken down
into smaller molecules
• Reverse synthesis reactions:
bonds are broken
• Underlie all degradative, or
catabolic, processes that
occur in body cells
– Example: the bonds of
glycogen molecules are
broken to release simpler
molecules of glucose sugar
(b)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Exchange (displacement) Reactions
•
Exchange (displacement) reactions
involve both synthesis and
decomposition reactions (bonds are
both made and broken)
–
Parts of the reactant molecules
change partners:
•
Single replacement:
•
Double replacement:
–
–
•
AB
AB
+
+
C
CD
→
→
AC
AD
+
B
+
CB
(c):An exchange reaction occurs when
ATP reacts with glucose and transfers
its end phosphate group (indicated by
a circled P) to glucose, forming
glucose-phosphate
–
–
At the same time, the ATP becomes
ADP
This important reaction occurs
whenever glucose enters a body cell
and it effectively traps the glucose
fuel molecule inside the cell
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Special exchange reactions in which
electrons are exchanged between reactants
– Reactant losing the electron (leo) is referred to as
the electron donor and is said to be oxidized
– Reactant taking up the transferred electrons
(overall charge algebraically lowered) is called the
electron acceptor and is said to become reduced
• Redox reactions
• Decomposition reactions in that they are the
basis of all reactions in which food fuels are
catabolized for energy (ATP is produced)
Redox Reactions
• Occur when ionic compounds are formed:
– Example: formation of NaCl
• Sodium loses an electron to chlorine
– Sodium is oxidized and becomes a sodium ion
» Overall charge 0 to +1
– Chlorine is reduced and becomes a chloride ion
» Overall charge 0 to -1
IONIC BOND
Redox Reactions
• Not all oxidation-reduction reactions
involve complete transfer of electrons
– Some simply change the pattern of
electron sharing in covalent bonds
• A substance is oxidized both by:
– Losing hydrogen atoms:
» Hydrogen is removed and takes the electron with it
– Combination with oxygen:
» Shared electrons spend more time in the vicinity of
the very electronegative oxygen atom
Redox Reactions
• Cellular respiration in living organisms
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
• glucose+oxygen→carbon+water+cellular
•
dioxide
energy
– Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide as it
loses hydrogen atoms
– Oxygen is reduced to water as it accepts the
hydrogen atoms
Energy Flow in Chemical Reactions
• Because all chemical bonds represent stored chemical
energy, all chemical reactions ultimately result in net
absorption or release of energy:
– Exergonic reactions release energy
• Yields products that have less energy than the initial reactants, but
they also provide energy that can be harvested for other uses
• With a few exceptions, catabolic and oxidative reactions are
exergonic
– Endergonic reactions absorb energy
• Products contain more potential energy in their chemical bonds than
did the reactants
• Anabolic reactions are typically energy-absorbing endergonic
reactions
Reversibility of Chemical Reactions
•
•
•
All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible
Reversibility is indicated by a double arrow
– When the arrows differ in length, the longer arrow indicates the major
direction in which the reaction proceeds
–
-----
– A + B
AB

• In this example, the forward reaction (reaction going to the right)
predominates
– Over time, the product (AB) accumulates and the reactants (A and B)
decrease in amount
– When the arrows are of equal length:
• A + B ↔ AB
– Neither the forward reaction nor the reverse reaction is dominant
– For each molecule of product (AB) formed, one product molecule
breaks down, releasing the reactants A and B and vice versa
– Such a chemical reaction is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium
» Once chemical equilibrium is reached, there is no further net
change in the amounts of reactants and products
Factors Influencing the Rate of
Chemical Reactions
• Chemicals react when they collide with enough force to
overcome the repulsion by their electrons
• An increase in temperature increases the rate of a
chemical reaction
• Smaller particle size results in a faster rate of reaction
• Higher concentration of reactants results in a faster
rate of reaction
• Catalysts increase the rate of a chemical reaction
without taking part in the reaction
– Biological catalysts are called enzymes
BIOCHEMISTRY
• Study of the chemical composition and
reactions of living matter
• All chemicals in the body fall into one of two
major classes:
– Organic:
• Contain carbon
• Covalently bonded
• Many are large
– Inorganic:
• Water
• Salts
• Many acids and bases
Inorganic Compounds
Water
• Water is the most important inorganic molecule, and
makes up 60-80% of the volume of most living cells
• Among the properties that make water vital are its:
– High specific heat: Water has a high heat capacity, meaning
that it absorbs and releases a great deal of heat before it
changes temperature (blood)
– High heat of vaporization: Water has a high heat of
vaporization, meaning that it takes a great amount of energy
(heat) to break the bonds between water molecules (sweat)
– Polar solvent properties: Water is a polar molecule and is
called the universal solvent
– Reactivity: Water is an important reactant in many chemical
reactions (hydrolysis: digestion)
– Cushioning: Water forms a protective cushion around organs of
the body (cerebrospinal fluid)
Inorganic Compounds
Salts
• Salts are ionic compounds
containing cations other
than H+ and anions other
than the hydroxyl ( OH- ) ion
• When salts are dissolved in
water they dissociate into
their component ions
– Example: dissociation of a
salt in water
• The slightly negative ends of
the water molecules are
attracted to Na+, whereas the
slightly positive ends of water
molecules orient toward Cl-,
causing the ions to be pulled
off the crystal lattice
DISSOCIATION
Inorganic Compounds
Salts
• Dissociation of Na2SO4 produces two Na+
ions and one SO42- ion
• All ions are electrolytes, substances that
conduct an electrical current in solution
– Note: that groups of atoms that bear an overall
charge, such as sulfate, are called polyatomic ions
• Salts commonly found in the body include:
–
–
–
–
NaCl: sodium chloride
Ca2CO3: calcium carbonate
KCl: potassium chloride
Ca3(PO4)2: calcium phosphate (bones, teeth)
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
• Maintaining proper ionic balance in our
body fluids is one of the most crucial
homeostatic roles of the kidneys
– When this balance is severely disturbed,
virtually nothing in the body works
Inorganic Compounds
Acids and Bases
• Like salts, acids and bases are
electrolytes
– They ionizes and dissociate in water and
can then conduct an electrical current
Inorganic Compounds
Acids
•
•
Have a sour taste
Is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (protons: H+)
– Because a hydrogen ion is just a hydrogen nucleus, acids are also defined
as proton donors
•
When acids dissolve in water, they release hydrogen ions (protons) and
anions
– It is the concentration of protons that determines the acidity of a solution
– Anions have little or no effect on acidity
– Example:
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl), an acid produced by stomach cells that aids digestion,
dissociates into a proton and a chloride ion
– HCl → H+ (proton) + Cl- (anion)
•
•
Other acids found in the body:
– Acetic acid: HC2H3O2 (acidic portion of vinegar) (can be written as HAc)
– Carbonic acid: H2CO3
The molecular formula for an acid is easy to recognize because the
hydrogen is written first
Inorganic Compounds
Bases
•
•
•
•
Bitter taste
Feel slippery
Bases are also called proton acceptors (absorb hydrogen ions: H+)
Common inorganic bases include the hydroxides, such as:
– Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia)
– Sodium Hydroxide (lye)
• Like acids, hydroxides dissociate when dissolved in water, but in this
case hydroxyl ions (OH-) and cations are produced
– Example: Ionization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) produces a hydroxyl
ion and a sodium ion
– NaOH → Na+ cation + OH- hydroxyl ion
• The hydroxyl ion then binds to (accepts) a proton present in the solution
producing water and simultaneously reduces the acidity (hydrogen ion
concentration) of the solution
• OH- + H+ → H2O water (HOH)
Bases
• Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), an important base
in the body
– Particular abundant in the blood
• Ammonia (NH3), a common waste product of
protein breakdown in the body, is also a base
– It has one pair of unshared electrons that strongly
attracts protons
– By accepting a proton, ammonia becomes an
ammonium ion:
• NH3 + H+ → NH4+ (ammonium ion)
pH: Acid-Base Concentration
• The relative concentration of hydrogen ions is measured in
concentration units called pH units
• Expressed in terms of moles per liter, or molarity
– The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, the more
acidic the solution
– The greater the concentration of hydroxyl ions, the more basic, or
alkaline, the solution
– The pH scale extends from 0-14 and is logarithmic (each
successive change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in
hydrogen ion concentration)
• The pH of a solution is thus defined as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration (H+) in moles per liter or –log[H+]
– A pH of 7 is neutral (at which [H+] is 10-7 M)
» The number of hydrogen ions exactly equals the number of hydroxyl
ions (pH=pOH)
• A pH below 7 is acidic
• A pH above 7 is basic or alkaline
pH SCALE
Neutralization
• Neutralization occurs when an acid and a
base are mixed together
– They react with each other in displacement
reactions to form a salt and water
– Example: when hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide interact, sodium chloride (a salt) and water
are formed
– HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
• Called a neutralization reaction, because the joining of H+
and OH- to form water neutralizes the solution
• Although the salt produced is written in molecular form
(NaCl), remember that it actually exists as dissociated
sodium and chloride ions when dissolved in water
Buffers
• Resist large fluctuations in pH that
would be damaging to living tissues by
releasing hydrogen ions (acting as acids)
when the pH begins to rise and by binding
hydrogen ions (acting as bases) when the
pH drops
Buffers
• To comprehend how chemical buffer systems operate,
you must thoroughly understand strong and weak acids
and bases
• The first important concept is that the acidity of a
solution reflects only the free hydrogen ions, not
those still bound to anions
– Consequently, acids that dissociate completely and
irreversibility in water are called strong acids, because they
can dramatically change the pH of a solution
– Examples are hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid
• If we could count out 100 hydrochloric acid molecules and
place them in 1 ml of water, we could expect to end up with 100
H+, 100 Cl-, and no undissociated hydrochloric acid molecules
in that solution
Buffers
• Acids that do not dissociate completely, like carbonic
acid (H2CO3) and acetic acid (HAc) (HC2H3O2), are
weak acids
– If you place 100 acetic acid molecules in 1 ml of water, the
reaction would be something like this:
• 100 HAc → 90 HAc + 10 H+ + 10 Ac-
– Because undissociated acids do not affect pH, the acetic
acid solution is much less acidic than the HCl solution
– Weak acids dissociate in a predictable way, and molecules of the
intact acid are in dynamic equilibrium with the dissociated ions
• Consequently, the dissociation of acetic acid may also be written as;
– HAc ↔ H+ + Ac-
Buffers
• HAc ↔ H+ + Ac• This viewpoint allows us to see that if H+ (released by a
strong acid) is added to the acetic acid solution, the
equilibrium will shift to the left and some H+ and Acwill recombine to form HAc
• On the other hand, if a strong base is added and the pH
begins to rise, the equilibrium shifts to the right and
more HAc molecules dissociate to release H+
– This characteristic of weak acids allows them to play
extremely important roles in the chemical buffer systems of
the body
Buffers
• The concept of strong and weak bases is more
easily explained
• Remember that bases are proton acceptors
– Thus, strong bases are those, like hydroxides, that
dissociate easily in water and quickly tie up H+
– On the other hand, sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
ionizes incompletely and reversibly
• Because it accepts relatively few protons, its released
bicarbonate ion is considered a weak base
Buffers
• Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system is a
very important one
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) dissociates
reversibly, releasing bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-) and protons (H+):
–
–
–
response to rise in pH (right)
H2CO3 (H+ donor: weak acid)
↔
HCO3- (H+ acceptor: weak base) + H+ (proton)
response to drop in pH (left)
Buffers
• The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid (a
weak acid) and bicarbonate ion (a weak base) resists
changes in blood pH by shifting to the right or left as H+
ions are added to or removed from the blood
– As blood pH rises (becomes more alkaline due to the
addition of a strong base), the equilibrium shifts to the right,
forcing more carbonic acid to dissociate
– Similarly, as blood pH begins to drop (becomes more acidic
due to the addition of a strong acid), the equilibrium shifts to
the left as more bicarbonate ions begin to bind with protons
• As you can see, strong bases are replaced by a weak base
(bicarbonate ion) and protons released by strong acids are tied
up in a weak one (carbonic acid)
– In either case, the blood pH changes much less than it would in
the absence of the buffering system
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Molecules unique to living systems—proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids—ALL
CONTAIN CARBON
• Carbon:
– NO other small atom is so precisely electroneutral
– NEVER loses or gains electrons
• It ALWAYS shares electrons
– With four valence shell electrons, forms four covalent bonds
with other elements, as well as with other carbon atoms
• As a result, carbon is found in long, chainlike molecules (common in
fats), ring structures (typical of carbohydrates and steroids), and
many other structures that are uniquely suited for specific roles in
the body
CARBOHYDRATES
• A group of molecules including sugars and starches
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
– Generally the hydrogen and oxygen atoms occur in the same 2:1
ratio as in water
• This ratio is reflected in the word carbohydrate (meaning
hydrated carbon)
• Major function in the body is to provide cellular fuel
• Classified according to size and solubility:
– Monosaccharide: one sugar
• Structural units, or building blocks, of the other carbohydrates
– Disaccharide: two sugars
– Polysaccharide: many sugars
• In general, the larger the carbohydrate molecule, the
less soluble it is in water
Monosaccharides
• Simple sugars that are single-chain or single-ring structures
containing from 3 to 7 carbon atoms
• Usually the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms occur in the ration
1:2:1, so a general formula for a monosaccharide is (CH2O)n ,where
n is the number of carbons in the sugar
– Examples:
• Glucose has six carbon atoms and its molecular formula is C6H12O6
• Ribose has five carbon atoms and its molecular formula is C5H10O5
Monosaccharides
•
Named generically according to the number of carbon atoms they contain
– Most important in the body are:
• Pentoses: five carbon
– Deoxyribose: part of the DNA molecule
• Hexoses: six carbon
– Glucose: blood sugar
– Galactose: isomer of glucose
– Fructose: isomer of glucose
» Isomer: have the same molecular formula (C6H12O6), but their atoms
are arranged differently, giving them different chemical properties
CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDES
Disaccharides
•
•
Double sugar
Formed when two monosaccharides are joined by a dehydration
synthesis
– In this synthesis reaction, a water molecule is lost as the bond is
made
• Example:
– 2C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + H2O
–
Glucose + fructose
sucrose
water
CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides
• Important disaccharides in the diet are:
– Sucrose: glucose+fructose
• Cane or table sugar
– Lactose: glucose+galactose
• Found in milk
– Maltose: glucose+glucose
• Malt sugar
CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides
• TOO large to pass through cell membranes
– Must be digested to their simple sugar units to be absorbed
from the digestive tract into the blood
• This decomposition process, called hydrolysis, is essentially the
reverse of dehydration synthesis (splitting with water)
– A water molecule is added to each bond, breaking the bonds and
releasing the simple sugar units
CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides
• Long chains of monosaccharides (simple sugars) linked together by
dehydration synthesis
– Such long, chainlike molecules made of many similar units are called
polymers
• large, fairly insoluble molecules that make ideal storage products
• Lack the sweetness of the simple and double sugars
• Only two polysaccharides are of major importance to the body: both
are polymers of glucose (ONLY their degree of branching differs):
Starch and Glycogen
– Starch:
• Storage carbohydrate formed by plants
• Number of glucose units composing a starch molecule is high and variable
• Must be hydrolyzed in digestion to glucose units before absorbed
– Another polysaccharide found in plants is cellulose
– We are unable to digest cellulose:
» Important in providing the bulk (one form of fiber) that helps move
feces through the colon
Polysaccharides
•
•
•
•
•
Glycogen:
Storage carbohydrate of animal tissues
Stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells
Very large and highly branched molecule
When blood sugar levels drop sharply, liver cells break
down glycogen and release its glucose units to the blood
POLYSACCHARIDE
GLYCOGEN
Carbohydrate Functions
• The major function of carbohydrates in the body is to
provide a ready, easily used source of cellular fuel
• Glucose is broken down and oxidized within cells:
– During these chemical reactions, electrons are transferred
– This relocation of electrons releases the bond energy stored in
glucose, and this energy is used to synthesize ATP
• When ATP supplies are sufficient, dietary carbohydrates are
converted to glycogen or fat and stored
• Only small amounts of carbohydrates are used for
structural purposes:
– Some sugars are found in our genes
– Some are attached to the external surfaces of cells where they
act as road signs to guide cellular interactions
LIPIDS
• Insoluble in water but dissolve readily in nonpolar
solvents (other lipids, organic solvents such as
alcohol and ether)
• Like carbohydrates, all lipids contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, but the proportion of oxygen in lipids is
much lower
• Phosphorus is found in some of the more complex lipids
• Lipids include:
–
–
–
–
Neutral fats
Phospholipids
Steroids
Lipoid substances (some vitamins, eicosanoids, and
lipoproteins)
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• Neutral fats (also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols) are
commonly known as fats when solid and oils when liquid
• Composed of two types of building blocks:
– Fatty acids: linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms
(hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group (—COOH) at
one end
– Glycerol: a modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol)
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• Fat synthesis involves attaching three fatty acid chains
to a single glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis
– Result is an E-shaped molecule
– Because of the 3:1 fatty acid to glycerol ratio, the neutral
fats are also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• The glycerol backbone is the same in ALL
neutral fats, BUT the fatty acid chains vary,
resulting in different kinds of neutral fats
• Neutral fats are large molecules, often consisting
of hundreds of atoms and ingested fats and oils
must be broken down to their building blocks
before they can be absorbed
• Provide the body’s MOST EFFICIENT and
COMPACT form for storing usable energy
fuel, and when they are oxidized they yield
large amounts of energy
– BUT difficult to digest
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• The hydrocarbon chains make neutral fats
nonpolar molecules
• Because polar and nonpolar DO NOT
interact, oil (or fats) and water DO NOT MIX
– Consequently, neutral fats are well suited for storing
energy fuel in the body
• Deposits of neutral fats are found mainly beneath the skin,
where they insulate the deeper body tissues from heat loss
and protect them from mechanical trauma
– Females better insulated then males
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• The length of a neutral fat’s fatty acid chains
and their degree of saturation with H atoms
determine how solid a neutral fat is at a given
temperature
• Saturated: Fatty acid chains with only single
covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Unsaturated: not saturated with H
– Monounsaturated: fatty acids that contain one
double bond
– Polyunsaturated: fatty acids with more than one
double bond
LIPIDS
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
Lipids
Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
• Liquid at room temperature:
–
–
–
–
Neutral fats with short fatty acid chains
Neutral fats with unsaturated fatty acid chains
Typical of plant lipids
Examples:
• Rich in monounsaturated oils:
– Olive oil
– Peanut oil
• Rich in polyunsaturated oils:
– Corn oil
– Soybean oil
– Safflower oil
• Solid at room temperature:
– Neutral fats with longer fatty acid chains
– Neutral fats with saturated fatty acid chains
– Common in animal fats
• Butter, meat
Lipids
Phospholipids
• Phospholipids are modified triglycerides
– Diglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group and
two fatty acid chains
LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Lipids
Phospholipids
•
The phosphorus-containing group gives phospholipids their
distinctive chemical properties:
– The hydrocarbon portion (tail) of the molecule is nonpolar and interacts
ONLY with nonpolar molecules (water insoluble)
– The phosphorus-containing part (head) is polar and attracts other polar or
charged particles, such as water or ions (water soluble)
• Molecules that have BOTH polar and nonpolar regions are amphipathic (allows these
chemicals to link, or to segregate, oils and water—cells use this unique characteristic in
building their membranes and detergents in cleaning)
LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Lipids
Phospholipids
• Chief component of cell membranes
• Participate in the transport of lipids in plasma
• Prevalent in nervous tissue
LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Lipids
Steroids
• Structurally different from fats
• Flat molecules made of four
interlocking hydrocarbon
rings
• Like neutral fats, they are fat
soluble and contain little
oxygen
• Most important molecule is
cholesterol
• We ingest cholesterol in animal
products such as eggs, meat,
and cheese
• Our liver produces a certain
amount of cholesterol
LIPIDS
STEROIDS
Lipids
Steroids
•
Cholesterol has earned bad press because of its role in arteriosclerosis,
but it is absolutely essential for human life
– Structural basis for manufacture of all body steroids
•
•
Found in cell membranes
Raw material for:
– Vitamin D:
• Fat-soluble vitamin produced in the skin on exposure to UV radiation
• Necessary for normal bone growth and function
– Sex hormones:
• Estrogen and progesterone (female hormones) and testosterone (male hormone) are
produced in the gonads and are necessary for normal reproductive function
– Corticosteroids: Adrenal Gland
• Cortisol, a glucocorticoid, is a metabolic hormone necessary for maintaining normal
blood glucose levels
• Aldosterone helps to regulate salt and water balance of the body by targeting the
kidneys
– Bile salts:
• Breakdown products of cholesterol
• released by the liver into the digestive tract, where they aid fat digestion and absorption
Lipids
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
• A:
– Found in orange-pigmented vegetables and fruits
– Converted in the retina, a part of the photoreceptor pigment involved in
vision
• E:
– Found in plant products such as wheat germ and green leafy vegetables
– Claims have been made that it promotes healing and contributes to
fertility????
– May help to neutralize highly reactive particles called free radicals
believed to be involved in triggering some types of cancer
• K:
– Made available to humans largely by the action of intestinal bacteria
– Prevalent in a wide variety of foods
– Necessary for proper clotting of blood
Lipids
Lipoproteins
• Lipoid and protein-based substances that
transport fatty acids and cholesterol in
the bloodstream
• Major varieties:
– High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
– Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
Lipids
Eicosanoids
• Eicosanoids are a group of diverse lipids chiefly
derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid (arachidonic
acid) found in all cell membranes
– Most important of these are the prostaglandins and
their relatives, which play roles in various body
processes including blood clotting, regulation of blood
pressure, control of gastrointestinal tract motility,
secretory activity, inflammation, and labor
contractions
PROTEINS
• Compose 10-30% of cell mass
– They are the basic structural material of the
body
– They also play vital roles in cell function
• Proteins are long chains of amino acids
connected by peptide bonds
• All proteins contain carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen, and many contain
sulfur and phosphorus
Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds
•
•
The building blocks of proteins are molecules called amino acids, of which there are 20 common
types
All amino acids have two important functional groups:
– A basic group called an amine group (—NH2)
– An organic acid group: carboxyl group (—COOH)
• Therefore amino acids can act either as a base (proton acceptor) or an acid (proton
donor)
• In fact, ALL amino acids are identical except for a single group of atoms called
their R group
– Difference in the R group make each amino acid chemically unique
PROTEIN
PROTEIN
Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds
• Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined together
by dehydration synthesis, with the amine end of one
amino acid linked to the acid end of the next
– The resulting bond produces a characteristic arrangement of
linked atoms called a peptide bond
PROTEIN
Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds
• Two united amino acids form a dipeptide,
three a tripeptide, and ten or more a
polypeptide
– Although polypeptides containing more than
50 amino acids are called proteins, most
proteins are macromolecules
• Large, complex molecules containing from 100 to
over 10,000 amino acids
Amino Acids and Peptide Bonds
• Because each type of amino acid has distinct properties,
the sequence in which they are bound together produces
proteins that vary widely in both structure and function
• Think of the 20 amino acids as a 20-letter alphabet
used in specific combinations to form words
(proteins)
– Just as a change in one letter can produce a word with an
entirely different meaning (flour→floor) or that is nonsensical
(flour→fllur)
• Changes in the kinds or positions of amino acids can yield
proteins with different functions or proteins that are
nonfunctional
• There are thousands of different proteins in the body, each with
distinct functional properties, and all constructed from different
combinations of the 20 common amino acids
Structural Levels of Proteins
• Proteins can be
described in terms of
four structural levels
– (a):The linear sequence of
amino acids composing the
polypeptide chain is called
the primary structure
• This structure, which
resembles a strand of
amino acids “beads,” is
the backbone of the
protein molecule
PROTEIN
Structural Levels of Proteins
• (b):Proteins twist and turn on
themselves to form a more
complex secondary structure
– The most common type of
secondary structure is the
alpha helix, which resembles
a Slinky toy or the coils of a
telephone cord
– Alpha helix is stabilized by
hydrogen bonds formed
between NH and CO groups in
amino acids in the primary
chain which are approximately
four amino acids apart
• Link different parts of the
same chain together
PROTEIN
Structural Levels of Proteins
•
(c):Beta-pleated sheet: another
type of secondary structure, the
primary polypeptide chains DO
NOT COIL, but are linked side by
side by hydrogen bonds to form
a pleated, ribbonlike structure that
resembles an accordion
– The hydrogen bonds may link
together different polypeptide
chains as well as different parts
of the same chain that has
folded back on itself
•
A single polypeptide chain may
exhibit BOTH types of
secondary structure at various
places along its length
PROTEIN
Structural Levels of Proteins
• (d):A more complex structure is
tertiary structure, resulting
from protein folding upon itself
to form a ball-like structure
– Achieved when alpha and
beta regions of the
polypeptide chain fold upon
one another to produce a
compact ball-like, or globular,
molecule
– This unique structure is
maintained by both covalent
and hydrogen bonds between
amino acids that are often far
apart in the primary chain
PROTEIN
Structural Levels of Proteins
• (e):Quaternary
structure results from
two or more
polypeptide chains
grouped together to
form a complex
protein
PROTEIN
Fibrous and Globular Proteins
• The overall structure of a protein
determines its biological function
• In general, proteins are classified
according to their overall appearance
and shape as either fibrous or globular
Fibrous Proteins
• Extended and strandlike
• They are known as structural proteins and most have only
secondary structure
– Some are quaternary structure
• They are stable
• Insoluble in water
• Ideal for providing mechanical support and tensile strength to
the body’s tissues
• Structural proteins
• Example:
– Collagen:
• Composite of the helix tropocollagen molecules packed side by side to form
a strong ropelike structure
• Single MOST abundant protein in the body
• Found in all connective tissues
• Responsible for the tensile strength of bones, tendons, and ligaments
Fibrous Proteins
– Keratin
• Structural protein of hair and nails
• Waterproof material of skin
– Elastin
• Found, along with collagen, where durability and flexibility are
needed, such as, in the ligaments that bind bones together
– Spectrin:
• Internally reinforces and stabilizes the surface membrane of some
cells, particularly red blood cells
– Dystrophin:
• Reinforces and stabilizes the surface membrane of muscle cells
– Titin:
• Helps organize the intracellular structure of muscle cells and
accounts for the elasticity of skeletal muscles
– Actin and Myosin:
• Contractile proteins found in muscles cells
Globular Proteins
• Compact, spherical structures that have at least tertiary structure;
some also exhibit quaternary structure
– They are water soluble, chemically active molecules, and play an
important role in vital body functions
• Consequently, some refer to this group as functional proteins
• Examples:
– Antibodies:
• Help to provide immunity
– Protein based hormones:
• Regulate growth and development
– Enzymes:
• Catalysts that oversee just about every chemical reaction in the body
– Transport:
• Hemoglobin: transports oxygen in blood
• Lipoproteins: transport lipids and cholesterol
– Plasma proteins (albumin): act as buffers in the blood
Protein Denaturation
• Fibrous proteins are stable, BUT globular
proteins are quite the opposite
• The activity of a protein depends on its
specific three-dimensional structure, and
intramolecular bonds, particularly hydrogen
bonds which are important in maintaining that
structure
– However, hydrogen bonds are fragile and easily
broken by many chemical and physical factors, such
as excessive acidity or heat
• Causing proteins to unfold and lose their specific threedimensional shape
– In this condition, a protein is said to be denatured
Protein Denaturation
• Globular proteins are susceptible to
denaturing, losing their shape due to
breaking of their hydrogen bonds
– In some cases this is reversible
• Protein denaturation is a loss of the
specific three-dimensional structure of a
protein
– It may occur when globular proteins are
subjected to a variety of chemical and
physical changes in their environment
Protein Denaturation
•
When globular proteins are denatured, they
can no longer perform their physiological
roles because their function depends on the
presence of specific arrangements of atoms,
called active sites, on their surfaces
– Active sites are regions that fit and
interact chemically with other
molecules of complementary shape
and charge
• Because atoms contributing to an
active site may actually be very far
apart in the primary chain,
disruption of intramolecular bonds
separates them and destroys the
active site
• Example: hemoglobin becomes
totally unable to bind and
transport oxygen when blood pH
is too acidic, because the
structure needed for its function
has been destroyed
DENATURATION
Protein
• Two groups of proteins are intimately
involved in the normal functioning of all
cells
– Molecular chaperones
– Enzymes
Molecular Chaperones
• Or chaperonins, are a type of globular
protein that help proteins achieve their
three-dimensional shape
– Although its amino acid sequence determines
the precise way a protein folds, the folding
process also requires the help of molecular
chaperones to ensure that the folding is quick
and accurate
Molecular Chaperones
• Protein related roles:
– Prevent accidental, premature, or incorrect folding of
polypeptide chains or their association with other
polypeptides
– Aid the desired folding and association process
– Help to translocate proteins and certain metal ions
(copper, iron, zinc) across cell membranes
– Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured
proteins
Enzymes
• Enzymes are globular proteins that act as
biological catalysts:
– Catalysts are substances that regulate and
accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions but are
not used up or changed in those reactions
– Cannot force chemical reactions to occur
between molecules that would not otherwise react
• They can only increase the speed of reaction
• Without enzymes, biochemical reactions proceed so slowly
that for practical purposes they do not occur at all
Enzymes
• Enzymes may be purely protein, or may consist
of two parts which are collectively called a
holoenzyme—an apoenzyme (the protein
portion) and a cofactor
– Depending on the enzyme, the cofactor may be an
ion of a metal element such as copper or iron, or
an organic molecule needed to assist the reaction
in some particular way
• Most organic cofactors are derived from vitamins
(especially the B complex vitamins)
– This type of cofactor is more precisely called a coenzyme
Enzymes
• Each enzyme is chemically specific
• Some enzymes control only a single chemical reaction—
others exhibit a broader specificity in that they can bind
with similar (but not identical) molecules and thus
regulate a small group of related reactions
– The presence of specific enzymes thus determines NOT ONLY
which reactions will be speeded up, but also which
reactions will occur — NO ENZYME, NO REACTION
• Most enzymes are named for the type of reaction they
catalyze: MOST names can be recognized by the
suffix -ase
– Hydrolases: add water during hydrolysis reactions
– Oxidases: add oxygen
Enzymes
• Some enzymes are produced in an inactive form and
must be activated in some way before they function:
– Examples:
• Before: Digestive enzymes produced in the pancreas are activated
in the small intestine, where they actually do their work
– If they were produced in active form, the pancreas would digest itself
• Sometimes, enzymes are inactivated immediately after they
have performed their catalytic function:
– True of enzymes that promote blood clot formation when the wall of a
blood vessel is damaged
– Once clotting is triggered, those enzymes are inactivated
» Otherwise, you would have blood vessels full of solid blood
instead of one protective blood cloy
Enzyme Activity
•
Every chemical reaction requires that
a certain amount of energy, called
activation energy, be absorbed to
prime the reaction
–
This activation energy pushes the
reactants to an energy level where
their random collisions are forceful
enough to ensure interaction
•
–
•
This is true regardless of whether the
overall reaction is ultimately energy
absorbing or energy releasing
One obvious way to increase molecular
energy is to increase the temperature,
but in living systems this would
denature proteins
Enzymes allow reactions to occur at
normal body temperature by
decreasing the amount of activation
energy required
ENZYME ENERGY
Enzyme Activity
•
•
Three basic steps appear to be involved in the
mechanism of enzyme action:
– 1. The enzyme’s active site must bind with the
substance(s) on which it acts
• These substances are called the
substrates of the enzyme
• This binding causes the active site to
change shape so that the substrate
and the active site fit together precisely
– 2. The enzyme-substrate complex
undergoes internal rearrangements that
form the product
– 3. The enzyme releases the product of the
reaction
• This step, shows the catalytic role of an
enzyme: If the enzyme became part of
the product, it would be a reactant and
not a catalyst
Because the unaltered enzymes can act again
and again, cells need only small amounts of
each enzyme
– Catalysis occurs with incredible speed
– Most enzymes can catalyze millions of
reactions per minute
ENZYME ACTION
NUCLEIC ACIDS
(DNA and RNA)
• Nucleic acids composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus are the largest molecules in
the body
• Nucleotides are the structural units of nucleic acids
• Each nucleotide consists of three components:
– A pentose sugar
– A phosphate group
– A nitrogen-containing base
• There are five nitrogenous bases used in nucleic acids
–
–
–
–
–
Adenine (A): purine (2 ring large molecule)
Guanine (G): purine (2 ring large molecule)
Cytosine (C): pyrimidine (1 ring small molecule)
Thymine (T): pyrimidine (1 ring small molecule)
Uracil (U): pyrimidine (1 ring small molecule)
NUCLEIC ACIDS
(DNA and RNA)
• DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid
– Is the genetic material of the cell, and is found within the nucleus
– Replicates itself before cell division and provides instructions for
making all of the proteins found in the body
– Structure is a double-stranded polymer containing the
nitrogenous bases A, T, G, and C, and the sugar deoxyribose
– Bonding of the nitrogenous bases in DNA is very specific:
• The bases that always bind together are known as
complementary bases:
– A bonds to T
– G bonds to C
DNA STRUCTURE
DNA STRUCTURE
NUCLEIC ACIDS
(DNA and RNA)
• RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid
– Is located (functions) outside the nucleus, and
is used to make proteins using the
instructions provided by the DNA
– Structure of RNA is a single-stranded polymer
containing the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, abd
U, and the sugar ribose
• In RNA:
– G bonds with C
– A bonds with U
ATP
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
• Is the energy currency used by the cell
• Is an adenine-containing RNA
nucleotide that has two additional
phosphate groups attached:
– The additional phosphate groups are
connected by high energy bonds
– Breaking the high energy bonds releases
energy the cell can use to do work
ATP STRUCTURE
ATP
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
• Very unstable energy-storing molecule because
its three negatively charged phosphate groups
are closely packed and repel each other
• Cells tap ATP’s bond energy during coupled
reactions by using enzymes to transfer the
terminal phosphate groups from ATP to other
compounds
– The newly phosphorylated molecules are said to be
“primed” and temporarily become more energetic and
capable of performing some type of cellular work
• In the process of doing this work, they lose the phosphate
group
Examples of ATP Cellular Work
• The high-energy bonds of
ATP are like coiled springs
that release energy for use
by the cell when they are
broken
• (a): ATP drives the transport
of certain solutes (amino
acids, for example) across cell
membranes
• (b): ATP activates contractile
proteins in muscle cells so
that the cells can shorten and
perform mechanical work
• (c): ATP provides the energy
to drive endergonic (energyabsorbing) chemical reactions
ATP CELL