Transcript Evolution & Natural Selection AND The Six Kingdoms of Life

Evolution & Natural Selection
AND
The Six Kingdoms of Life &
Biological Communities
Presented by Sarah Piccorelli
Evolution
Here are some things you might need to know
about evolution…
•
•
•
Evolution is a process.
Dictionary definition: growth to maturity and
development of an individual living thing
Species are thought to have descended
from earlier species.
Natural Selection
Now that you have some background
knowledge on evolution, we’ll move our focus
to natural selection…
1. From one generation to the next, inherited
traits that enabled species to survive in a
given environment were preserved.
Unfavorable traits were eliminated.
2. Charles Darwin is an important name to
remember when you think of natural selection.
Results of Natural Selection
But… What does
generation to generation, as the world
• From
Adaptation:
that
really
mean??
around you changes, you change with it. In
evolutionary
turn,
you, as aofclass
modification
an (or group of similar
species
living
individual
thattogether), survive longer.
improves that
individual’s chances of
survival and
reproductive success
in its environment…
Charles Darwin & Natural Selection
1. The environment plays a crucial role in
Darwin’s theory.
2. He proposed the idea of evolution by
natural selection back in the 19th century
and it’s still accepted today.
3. His theory of evolution by natural
selection consists of four observations
about the natural world.
Four Observations About the
Natural World
You might want to take notes if you haven’t
already started doing so…(hint. hint.)
1. High reproductive capacity
2. Heritable variation
3. Limits on population growth, or a struggle
for existence
4. Differential reproductive success
High Reproductive Capacity
&
Heritable Variation
• Each species will produce more offspring than will reach
maturity.
• Natural populations have the reproductive potential to
increase their numbers continuously over time.
• The individuals in a population exhibit variation.
• Each individual has a unique combination of traits, such
as size, color, and ability to tolerate harsh environments.
Struggle for Existence
&
Differential Reproductive Success
• Only so much food, water, light, and growing space are available to
a population, and organisms compete with one another for the
limited resources available to them.
• Not all of the offspring will survive to reproductive age because there
are more individuals than the environment can support
• More factors of limited population growth? Predators and diseases.
• The individuals that possess the most favorable combination of
characteristics are most likely to survive, reproduce, and pass their
traits to the next generation.
• Reproduction is the key to natural selection, in that the best adapted
individuals reproduce most successfully.
• New species are created when enough changes accumulate within
geographically separated populations.
Kingdoms of Life
• Archaea –
they live in oxygen-deficient enviornments
and are adapted to harsh conditions
• Bacteria –
the thousands of remaining kinds of
prokaryotes
• Eukarya –
classified as eukaryotes, organisms with
eukaryotic cells
The Six Kingdoms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Animalia
Plantae
Fungi
Protista
Archaea
Bacteria
Biological Communities
• Vast assemblages of organisms are
classified into communities.
• Community means an association of
different populations of organisms that
live and interact in the same place at
the same time.
• Many organisms in a community are
interdependent.
Interdependency
• Species compete with one another for
food, water, living space, and other
resources.
• Some organisms kill and eat other
organisms.
• Some species form intimate associations
with one another, whereas other species
seem only distantly connected.
More About Communities…
• In a community you’re either a producer, a
consumer, or a decomposer.
• Communities vary greatly in size, lack precise
boundaries, and are rarely completely isolated.
• They interact with and influence other
communities around them, even if how they do
so isn’t always apparent right away.
• (example: A forest is a community, but so is a
rotting log in that same forest.)
Continued…
• Organisms exist in an abiotic (nonliving)
environment that is as essential to their
existence as is their biotic (living)
environment.
• A biological community and its abiotic
environment comprise an ecosystem.
Summary
Your notes should look like:
1.
Evolution: Species are thought to have descended from earlier
species.
2.
Natural Selection: From one generation to the next, inherited
traits that enabled species to survive in a given
3.
4.
5.
6.
environment were preserved. Unfavorable traits
were eliminated.
Result of natural selection: adaptation
Six Kingdoms : Animalia, plantae, fungi, protista,
archaea, and bacteria
Community is a an association of different
populations of organisms that live and interact in
the same place at the same time.
Many organisms in a community are interdependent.
Community Interactions in an Oak
Forest
&
Ecological Niches
Matt Maruzzi
Community Interactions in an Oak
Forest
• Relationship between acorns, mice, deer,
gypsy moths, and ticks
• “Bumper” crop of acorns occur every 3-4
years
• Bumper crop- Particularly productive harvest
yielded for a particular crop
• Bumper crop of acorns allows the whitefooted mouse population to thrive
• Mice also feed on gypsy moth pupae, which
causes the trees in the forest to be healthier.
• Healthier trees attract more deer
• More deer and mice causes there to be more
ticks
• Ticks result in an increase in Lyme disease
The Ecological Niche
• Ecological Niche- Organism’s role in the ecosystem
• Organisms in an ecosystem are believed to have an
ecological niche
• Ecological niche of an organism may be bigger than it
actually is
• Fundamental niche- Potential/ idealized ecological
niche of an organism
• Realized niche- Lifestyle the organism actually
pursues and resources it actually uses
Green & Brown Anoles
• Green anole
native to Florida
• Brown anoles
introduced to
Florida from Cuba
outcompete green
anoles
• Green anole’s
niche is restricted
• Brown anole’s
niche is increased
All organisms interact with one another!
Three Main Types of Interactions:
-Symbiosis
-Predation
-Competition
Competition occurs when two or more individuals
attempt to use essential common resources such as
food, water, shelter living space or sunlight
Competition occurs amongst individuals:
-within a certain population
-between spaces
Intraspecific competition
Interspecific competition
Flowers
supply
nectar as a
source of
food for
insects.
Flowering plants that
live in pine forests
may compete with
conifers for soil
nutrients and
moisture.
Some of these insects also prey on
needle eating insects
The
reduced
number of
needle
easting
insects
means
less
impact on
the
conifers
Similar species have fundamental
niches that overlap.
Competitive Exclusion- the notion that
no two species can indefinitely occupy
the same ecological niche.
Interspecific competition eventually
excludes one of two species from its
environmental niche.
Species can compete for necessary
resources without aggressive
interactions, but two species of
absolutely identical niches cannot
coexist.
Coexistence between species like this
is only possible if the overlap is
reduced.
Russian Biologist G. F. Gause conducted several experiments in which he concluded
that certain conditions favored certain species. Either way, of two similar species in a
mixed culture, one will eventually triumph over the other in a mixed environment.
Gause studied the
interactions between
two different species
of the unicellular
protist, Paramecium.
Both P. aurelia
and P.caudatum
populations
develop and
thrive at a
certain point in
their own singlespecies
environment.
When both species are grown in a mixed
environment, the P. aurelia pushes the the
P.caudatum to extinction, proving the concept
of competitive exclusion.
Because competition depletes limited
resources and can cause extinction of
some species, natural selection favors
those species that avoid or reduce
competition.
Resource Partitioning- the reduction in
competition for environmental resources
that occurs among coexisting species
as a result of each species’ niche
differing from those of other in one or
more ways
In Central and South American rainforests,
fruit-eating species such as birds, primates,
and bats have overlapping niches. They
collectively avoid competition through resource
partitioning. Examples include: timing of
feeding, nest sites, location of feeding etc.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close
relationship between
two different species.
Each member of the
symbiosis process is
called a symbiont.
In symbiosis each
symbiont may or may
not benefit from the
relationship.
Consists of
Commesalism,
Paratism, and
Mutalism.
Coevolution
Coevolution is the
interdependent
evolution of two
interacting species.
Symbiosis is the result
of coevolution.
An example of
coevolutionary
symbiosis is flowering a
plant then have insects
and other types of
pollinators spread the
existence of the plant.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a symbiotic
relationship in which both
species are benefitted.
This is the most common
example of symbiosis.
An example of mutalism is
when a flower is planted
and pollinator comes along
to feed off the pollen. The
pollinator gets a source of
food and the plant is spread
through the process.
Flowers in Symbiosis
Flowers are a big part in
Symbiosis.
Flowering plants has
actually evolved to attract
pollinators which creates
symbiosis.
This helps to increase
symbiosis and benefits
both the pollinators and
the plant.
Mycorrhizae!!!!!
Mycorrhizae (fungi), shows the mutualistic
relationship between the roots of plants and
fungi.
Mycorrhizae is a popular example of mutualism.
The fungi absorbs essential nutrients and
minerals and provides them to the plant. In
return the plant provides it with food made
through photosynthesis.
Pictures
Commensalisms and Parasitism
WHAT IS COMMENSALISMS?
WHAT IS PARASITISM?
By: Kimberly Holsborg
APES per.3/4
Commensalism
Commensalism: An association between
two different species in which one benefits
and the other is unaffected.
In ecology, commensalism is a class of
relationship between two organisms where
one organism benefits without affecting
the other.
Commensalism
► Example:
The relationship between two kinds of
insects: silverfish and army ants.
►
- Silverfish tend to move along in permanent
association with marching columns of army ants
and share there surplus of food with their raids.
The army ants derive no benefit or harm from the
silverfish.
An example of commensalism:
►
cattle egrets foraging in fields
among cattle or other livestock.
As cattle, horses and other
livestock graze on the field, they
cause movements that stir up
various insects. As the insects
are stirred up, the cattle egrets
following the livestock catch and
feed upon them. The egrets
benefit from this relationship
because the livestock have
helped them find their meals,
while the livestock are typically
unaffected by it.
Commensalism
 Example:
The relationship between a tropical tree and many
epiphytes:
(Epiphytes- smaller plants including mosses, orchids,
bromeliads, and ferns that live attached to the bark of
trees.)
-

The epiphytes anchors itself to the tree but does not
obtain nutrients or water directly from the tree. Its
location on the tree allows it to obtain an adequate
amount of light, water (from rainfall), and required
nutrients and minerals (washed out of trees from
rainfall). As a result, the epiphytes benefits from the
association, leaving the tree unaffected.
Other examples:

The most common
example is the
clownfish and the sea
anemone. The
clownfish shelters
among the tentacles
of the sea anemone,
and the sea anemone
is not affected.
Continued….

Barnacles:
- live on whales and get
to be transported to
different areas of the
ocean to feed. The whales
are not affected.
-Barnacles are highly
sedentary crustaceans that
must attach themselves
permanently to a hard
substrate, such as the
shells of mollusks or
whales or anything else on
which they can gain a
foothold. When they attach
to the shell of a scallop, for
instance, barnacles benefit
by having a place to stay,
leaving the scallop
presumably unaffected.
A titan triggerfish
creates feeding
opportunities for
smaller fish by
moving large rocks
too big for them to
shift themselves.
This shows the symbiotic
relationship commensalism, the
bird gets
food from the back of the cow
but the cow is not affected
What is Parasitism?

A symbiotic relationship in which one
organism benefits and the other is
adversely affected.
 In parasitism one organism, the parasite obtains
nourishment from another organism, the host.
 Rarely will a parasite kill its host, but it may
weaken the host.
 Parasite can live outside the host, on their body or
within the host.
 Parasitism is a successful lifestyle, for the
parasite… More than 100 parasites can be found
living in or on the human species.
 Many parasites do not cause disease, but…
 When a parasite does cause disease or sometimes
death to their host its knows as a pathogen.
 Unlike predators, parasites increase their fitness by
exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their
survival, e.g. food, water, heat, habitat, and
transmission.
Parasites are classified based on their
interactions with their hosts…
Parasites that live on the
surface of the host are
called ectoparasites:
Examples: mites, ticks,
head lice, mosquitoes
This shows
parasitism. The tick gets
the blood it needs to
survive, but the
dog is harmed by the tick
transmitting disease into its
blood.
 Those that live inside
the host are called
Endoparasites which
include:
parasitic worms:
tape worms,
flatworms, flukes
 bacterium: crown
gall disease
(enters through
wounds)

• Most
humans become infected
with the beef tapeworm by eating
undercooked beef infested with
tapeworms.
The tapeworm attaches to
the wall of intestines where it
rapidly grows by absorbing
nutrients. (no symptoms,
other then weight loss)
 The mosquito takes
blood from human
and may inject
disease which may
harm the human.
The mosquito gets
food, but the human
may become sick.
(Malaria)
Shistosoma mansoni endoparasite that
lives in human blood vessels.
Mistletoe Plants
 Mistletoe plants
grow on a wide
range of host
trees, and
commonly reduce
their growth but
can kill them with
heavy infestation.
Crown Gall Disease
 The bacterium is parasitic: It
infects its plant host by
entering through an open
wound, inserts a small
segment of its genetic code
into the plant's genome,
devours energy made by the
plant, and forms knobby
brown lesions on the plant
stem.
Predation
MERICA
Predation
Predators kill and feed on other
organisms
Animals eating other animals
– Carnivore-herbivore interactions
Animals eating plant
– Herbivore-producer interactions
Like an “Arms Race”
Predators have more effective ways to catch there prey
Exert a strong force the on prey to KILL….KILL
Like An “Arms Race”
Prey have better ways to escape predators
– Evolves a countermeasure to survive
Pursuiting
Any trait that increases hunting efficiency
for the predators
Mostly predators because they all larger
and mostly smarter then there prey
Pursuiting
Orcas (killer whales) hunting in packs to
herd salmon in a cove, so it is easier to
catch
Pursuiting
A bear attacking a person who is aimlessly
walking through the woods.
Ambush
Predators try to blend in with there
surroundings with “camouflage” to sneak
up on prey
Ambush
They also try to “attract” there prey
Plant Defenses
Adaptation's that help protect them from
being eaten
– Spines
– Thorns
– Tough, leathery leaves
– Thick wax on leaves
These discourage animals from grazing
Plant Defenses
Produces protective chemicals that are inedible
even toxic to herbivores
Ingredients can be:
– Marijuana, Opium poppy, tobacco, peyote cactus
For example: Nicotine
found in tobacco is so
toxic to insects, that it is
used in some commercial
Insecticides.
Milkweeds
Produce alkaloids
and cardiac
glycosides
Poisonous to all
animals except a
small group of
insects.
Predators also
learned avoid these
insects
Defensive adaptations of Animals
Underground burrows
– Woodchucks, Woodpeckers
Mechanical Defenses
– Quills of porcupine, Shell of a turtle
Animals Living in Groups
– Honeybees, Pigeons
Warning coloration
– Poison arrow frog, Striped skunk
Cryptic Coloration (camouflaged)
– Caterpillars, blend in with twigs
– Seahorse blend in with coral
Defensive Adaptations
Defensive Adaptations
Defensive Adaptations
Does the Extinction of species
threaten the normal functioning and
stability of ecosystems?


By Amanda Denizard
Species richness, Ecosystem
services, and community stability
Ecologists and conservationists have
been debating whether the extinction of
species threatens the everyday
functions and stability of ecosystems.

Ecosystems supply human societies
with tons of environmental benefits

Ecosystems with a larger amount of
species richness have a higher quality
of ecosystem services than ones with
lower species richness




Ecosystem service:
Important
environmental benefits
that ecosystems provide
to humans.
(this includes clean air,
water, and fertile soil)
Some ecosystems that
are more commonly
known are forests,
grassland and fresh
water systems.
http://www.nhdfl.org/about-forests-and-lands
http://www.roseclan.zoomshare.com/files/Mountain_stream.j
pg




Community stability: the absence of change.
Community stability is the the result of
resistance and resilience.
Resistance: the ability of a community to
withstand environmental disturbances,
natural or human.
Resilience: The ability of a community to
recover quickly to its former state following
the disturbance.
 Lake Victoria: the worlds
Second largest
freshwater lake
In East Africa.
 Home to about 400
different speices of
cichlids(sik’ lids), small
colorful fishes.
 These fishes thrive
throughout the lake
ecosystem on algae and
provide protein to the
diets of 30 million
humans living in the
area.
http://korbelgftei.wordpress.com/


Compared to 50 years ago more
than half of the cichlids and other
native fishes are extinct today.
As a result, the the algal population
increased rapidly. When the algae die
their decomposition uses up the
dissolved oxygen in the water.
A major contributor to
the destruction of Lake
Victoria is the Nile
Perch.
 Human Caused factors
are also to blame for the
disappearance of the
cichlids.(pollution,
overfishing, sediment
pollution, ect .)
 Biologists are currently
trying to find a fishing
level that will be
sustainable but also
maintain speices
richness of native

species.
http://animal.discovery.com/adventure-fishing/big-fishspecies/nile-perch.html
COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT
Zahraa Badat
Community Development
• A community develops gradually, through a
sequence of species.
• Succession: process of community development
over time, usually described in terms of the
changes in species composition of the plants
growing in an area
• Climax community: stable and persistent
community
• Mature climax community are not in a state of
permanent stability but rather a state of continual
disturbance, as a community changes in species
composition and abundance while appearing to
stay uniform
Primary Succession
•Ecological succession that begins in an
environment that has not been
previously inhabited.
•Pioneer community: the initial
community that develops during
primary succession (ex. Lichens)
• Lichens → mosses → grasses → shrubs → trees
Primary Succession on Sand Dunes
•Henry Cowles developed the concept of
succession in the 1880s.
•He studied succession on sand dunes around
the shores of Lake Michigan.
•The shrinking lake exposed new sand dunes
that displayed a series of stages in the
colonization of land.
• grasses → shrubs → poplars → pine trees → oak trees
Secondary Succession
• Ecological succession that takes place after some
disturbance destroys the existing vegetarians; soil is
already present
• During summer 1998, wildfires burned about 1/3 of
Yellowstone National Park, and this natural disaster
provided a chance for biologists to study secondary
succession.
• Less than a year later, trout lily and other herbs
covered the ground, and ten years after the fires, a
young forest dominated the area.
Old Field Succession
• Biologist have studied secondary succession on abandoned
farmland extensively.
• The first year after cultivation stops, crabgrass dominates the field.
• The second year, horseweed is the dominant species.
• During the third year, other weeds (broomsedge, ragweed, aster)
establish themselves.
• In 5 to 15 years, the dominant plants are pines, and throughout the
next century or so, depending on the environmental changes
produced by these plants, pines give way to hardwoods such as
oaks.
Secondary Succession on Abandoned Farmland